Medio Ambiente y Desarrollo Sustentable

Artículo arbitrado

Medical Geology: Its Relevance to Mexico

Geología Médica: su relevancia para México

3,4

MARÍA AURORA ARMIENTA , ROBERT B. FINKELMAN Y HÉCTOR O. RUBIO-ARIAS

Recibido: Enero 7, 2013

Aceptado: Febrero 28, 2013

Abstract

Resumen

Interest in medical geology issues is rapidly expanding around

the world. The objective of this paper is to highlight medical

geology issues in Mexico and to discuss the importance of natural

resources and its relation to human and animal health. Three

Mexico´s zones are discussed; North, Central and Western. In

addition, two main concerns are addressed; the arsenic and the

flouride levels in ground water. These two trace elements along

with others such as uranium and radon are elements that pose

a serious threat to human health. The last part is dedicated to

Chihuahua where arsenic, fluorine, uranium and radon coming

from geogenic or anthropogenic sources present a serious threat

to humans. The authors hope to encourage students and

professors to participate and engage in medical geology

conferences and events in order to improve their knowledge on

this topic as well as to improve the health of Mexican citizens

and people all over the world.

El concepto y la importancia del estudio de la geología médica

está creciendo alrededor del mundo. El objetivo de este trabajo

es discutir la importancia de diversos aspectos de geología

médica en México y señalar la relacion de los recursos naturales

con la salud humana y animal. Se discuten tres grandes

regiones del país: la región norte, la región central y la región

oeste.Además, se analizan dos preocupaciones fundamentales:

el arsénico y el flúor. Estos dos elementos, junto con otros

como el uranio y radón son elementos que potencialmente

representan una amenaza a la salud humana en el país. La

última parte del análisis se enfoca en el estado de Chihuahua,

que es el más grande de México, y donde el arsénico, flúor,

uranio y radón, presentes ya sea de fuentes naturales

(geogénicas) o antropogénicas, representan una seria amenaza

a la salud humana. Los autores desean motivar tanto a

estudiantes como profesores a participar e involucrarse en el

tema de la geología médica con el fin de ahondar en sus diferentes

aspectos y, como consecuencia, mejorar la salud de los

habitantes de México y del mundo.

Keywords: human health, environmental human threat, arsenic,

fluorine, uranium, radon.

Palabras clave: salud humana, amenaza, arsénico, flúor,

uranio, radón.

Introduction

f you have never heard the term Medical Geology you are not alone. Most people,

even many scientists, have not heard of the term. Yet medical geology is a field

of knowledge whose roots go back millions of years and whose impacts affect

just about everyone on the planet.

________________________________

Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Instituto de Geofísica. Circuito Exterior, C.U. México D.F., 04510, México.

University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX 75083, United States of America.

Universidad Autónoma de Chihuahua. Facultad de Zootecnia y Ecología. Periférico Francisco R. Almada, Km. 1, Chihuahua, Chih.,

Mexico. 31453.

Dirección electrónica del autor de correspondencia: rubioa1105@hotmail.com.

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MARÍA AURORA ARMIENTA, ROBERT B. FINKELMAN Y HÉCTOR O. RUBIO-ARIAS: Medical Geology: Its Relevance to Mexico

Medical geology is the science dealing with

the impacts of the natural environment (geologic

materials and geologic processes) on animal

and human health. It is concerned with exposure

to naturally occurring trace elements, minerals

in ambient dust and organic compounds in

water and in the atmosphere. Medical geologists

study volcanoes, earthquakes, and other natural

phenomena to determine how these activities

impact health. Medical geology is a discipline

that links environmental science, public health,

and geoscience in an effort to better understand

these issues so that their impacts on public

health can be minimized or even eliminated.

Dissanayake and Chandrajith; and Medical

Geology:ARegional Synthesis, 2010, edited by

Selinus et al. that contains a chapter on medical

geology issues in Mexico, Central America and

the Caribbean (Armienta et al., 2010). Several

local and regional organizations have been

formed including the International Medical

GeologyAssociation (www.medicalgeology.org)

which, presently, has a regional chapter in

Mexico and the Geological Society ofAmerica’s

Geology and Health Division (http://

rock.geosociety.org/GeoHealth/index.html). In

addition, it is important to mention that more than

5,000 people have attended the 50 Medical

Geology short courses presented in more than

As long as 2 million years ago humanoids

used minerals to settle upset stomachs likely

counteracting the effects of eating rotten fruits

and meats (Abrahams, 2005). Certainly long

before that humanoids were aware of the

potential dangers from volcanic activity and

drinking water from certain natural sources.

Many ancient civilizations were aware of various

ways that rocks, minerals, water, and dust could

impact human health. Their scientists and

philosophers produced treatises warning

readers of these dangers or recommending the

use of specific rocks and mineral to counteract

various diseases. Much of the valuable

knowledge of these ancient indigenous peoples

have been ignored by modern society or

irretrievably lost.

0 countries. In Mexico, courses in this series

were presented in Piedras Negras (1995) and

Mexico City (1997). Medical Geology short

courses were also given in San Luis Potosi

(2007) and, most recently (2011 and 2013), at

the UniversidadAutónoma de Chihuahua.

In this paper, we provide examples of the

recent and ongoing medical geology research

in Mexico. We hope that these examples will

adequately demonstrate the significance of

medical geology health issues and illustrate the

opportunities that exist for students and

researchers to engage in the growing field of

medical geology.

Examples of Medical Geology

Studies in México (Figure 1)

Despite this long history and the widespread

and sometimes severe health impacts, the

science of medical geology is relatively new.

During this past decade there has been a

resurgence of interest in this field that has led to

active research projects in many parts of the

world including Mexico and the development of

a support structure for those active or interested

in the field. A number of useful medical geology

books have been produced in the past few years

including: Geology and Health 2003, edited by

Skinner and Berger; Essentials of Medical

Geology, 2005, edited by Selinus et al. (note: a

new edition will be published in late 2012);

Introduction to Medical Geology, 2009, by

Arsenic (As) and fluorine (F) are important

elements in México from the perspective of

medical geology. Their health impacts have

resulted mainly from drinking of naturally

contaminated groundwater. High fluoride

groundwater concentrations have been detected

in many areas of the country; many of them

coincide with arsenic contaminated zones.

Estupiñán-Day et al. (2005) considered that

about 4 million people live in natural fluoride-rich

zones and are at risk from dental and skeletal

fluorosis (Figure 2). This is particularly important

since groundwater is the main drinking water

source in México especially in the Northern part

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MARÍA AURORA ARMIENTA, ROBERT B. FINKELMAN Y HÉCTOR O. RUBIO-ARIAS: Medical Geology: Its Relevance to Mexico

Figure 1. Location of studied zones. 1) Comarca Lagunera, 2)

Hermosillo, Sonora 3) Mexicali, Baja California, 4) Chihuahua,

Chihuahua, 5) Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes, 6) Acámbaro,

where arid and semiarid ecosystems are

common. Indeed, endemic fluorosis was

considered as an unrecognized environmental

health problem in México in 1997 (Díaz-Barriga

et al., 1997). A meeting of the National

Commission of Water and the Ministry of Health

of Mexico (Comisión Nacional del Agua,

Secretaría de Salud), the Panamerican Health

Organization, and the U. S. Center for Disease

Control and Prevention was held in 2004 to deal

with fluoride occurrence and fluorosis in México

and recommend alternatives to protect the

population. The states ofAguascalientes, Sonora,

Zacatecas, San Luis Potosí, Baja California and

Durango were identified as having the highest

prevalence of fluorosis.Areview on dental fluorosis

in México was written by Soto-Rojas et al. (2004).

One of the measures to diminish the population

exposure was to prohibit selling fluoridated salt

Guanajuato, 7) Tequisquiapan, Qurétaro, 8) Guadiana Valley,

Durango, 9) Zimapán, Hidalgo, 10) San Luis Potosí, San Luis

Potosí, 11) San Ramón, Zacatecas.

(the salt type offered regularly throughout the

country) in fluoride-enriched areas.

Distribution of Medical Geology

Problems in Northern México

Arsenic-related health problems due to

ingestion of arsenic-rich water were first

identified around 1958 in the Comarca Lagunera

region, in northern México; about 400,000 people

were considered at risk at that time. VariousAs-

enriched groundwater zones have been

identified since then, in different parts of the

country. Studies have been conducted to assess

As concentrations, distribution, and, most

recently, As sources. Natural arsenic presence

in groundwater has been mainly related to its

release from As-bearing minerals, geothermal

processes, water interaction with volcanic rocks,

clays and Fe-oxyhydroxides as well as

evaporation (Armienta and Segovia, 2008).

Epidemiological studies to determine the actual

effects of chronic As ingestion have also been

carried out in some of those areas. These

effects include hyperkeratosis, hyper and

hypopigmentation, and blackfoot disease

One of the most studied zones of the

country in the field of medical geology has been

the Comarca Lagunera (Figure 1). In this zone,

which includes the southwest part of Coahuila

and the northeast part of Durango states, health

problems such as kerathosis, skin pigmentation

and black foot disease resulting from chronic

As intake were detected in 1958 (Cebrian et al.,

994). Groundwater containing up to 0.718 mg

-1

L was identified as the source of exposure (Del

Razo et al., 1990; Rosas et al.,1999; Molina,

004). The Mexican drinking water standard for

-1

arsenic is 0.025 mg L (NOM-127-SSA1-1994,

000). Several research projects in this area

have been conducted to unravel theAs origin in

groundwater, including geological, hydro-

geological, and geochemical aspects together

with hydrogeological and geochemical modeling.

According to those studies As originated from

one or several of the following processes:

hydrothermal activity, desorption from clays,

dissolution and desorption from Fe and Mn

oxides, evaporation, and oxidation of sulfides

(González-Hita et al., 1991; Ortega-Guerrero,

(

Figure 2). Examples of these studies are

included below. Arsenic presence (up to 0.12

mg L ) in groundwater has been ascribed to

sulfide oxidation (Mahlknecht et al., 2004) and

volcanic rocks dissolution in the fractured aquifer

(Ortega-Guerrero, 2009).

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MARÍA AURORA ARMIENTA, ROBERT B. FINKELMAN Y HÉCTOR O. RUBIO-ARIAS: Medical Geology: Its Relevance to Mexico

003; Molina, 2004; Gutiérrez-Ojeda, 2009).

water (Wyatt et al., 1988a). Bearing in mind the

absence of possible anthropogenic sources of

As, its presence was considered to result from

natural processes.Analyses of urine in exposed

population at the town of Esperanza in Sonora

Ingestion of As consumption through cooked

food was also revealed as an important source

of the contaminant to the inhabitants in the

Comarca Lagunera area (Del Razo et al., 2002).

Research has also been conducted to relate As

exposure with health. Del Razo et al. (1997)

found relationship betweenAs speciation in urine

and signs of dermatological affectations.

Gonsebatt et al. (1997) observed a significant

increase in micronuclei of urinary and oral

epithelial cells of exposed people as well as an

increase in the frequency of chromatide

deletions, isochromatides in lymphocytes.

Coronado-González et al. (2007) detected a

relation between diabetes and total As

concentrations in urine. Rosales-Castillo et al.

showed a geometric mean of 65.1 mg L As

corresponding to a mean As intake of 65.5 mg

day .Apositive correlation betweenAs in urine,

As intake and As in water was also found in

Hermosillo, Sonora (Wyatt et al., 1998b; Meza

et al., 2004). Besides, at Hermosillo, As

concentrations in groundwater correlated with

those of fluoride (Wyatt et al.,1998b).

-1

Fluoride, from 1.5 to 5.67 mg L was

reported in groundwater of the Guadiana valley

in Durango. Nearly 95% of the population was

considered to be exposed to concentrations

(2004) found an increase of cancer incidence

-1

above 2.0 mg L which is higher than the

with As exposure (Armienta et al., 2010;

Camacho et al., 2011).

-1

Mexican drinking water standard of 1.5 mg L

(

NOM-127-SSA1-1994, 2000). These people

The presence of high concentrations of

exhibited dental fluorosis and increased bone

fractures and children showed a positive

correlation between dental fluorosis and fluoride

in drinking water (Ortiz et al.,1998; Alarcón-

Herrera et al., 2001)

fluoride (up to 3.7 mg L ) in groundwater in As

contaminated areas has also been reported at

Comarca Lagunera (Del Razo et al.,1993).

Figure 2. Fluorosis evidence in a Mexican patient.

Radon is another natural health threat

causing increased lung cancer risk and linked

to alpha radiation exposure from radon in air.

High radon concentrations may occur in certain

geologic environments. Radon-in-soil levels up

to 500 kBq m were measured in a uranium-

rich zone in Sonora (Segovia et al., 2007;

Armienta et al., 2010). Reyna-Carranza and

López-Badilla (2002) determined indoor radon

concentrations in 95 houses of Baja California

(Figure 1). They found a higher number of deaths

in neighbourhoods without pavement in

comparison to those paved, as well as a higher

number of women deaths relative to men. These

researchers explain their results due to the

longer time spent in the home by women. Radon

concentrations were also higher at homes

where a lung cancer death had occurred.

In Sonora (Figure 1) studies of arsenic and

fluoride in groundwater and population health

have also been carried out. Up to 0.305 mg L

As was measured in wells and storage tanks in

990; however, concentrations decreased

afterwards due to dilution with uncontaminated

In Chihuahua, arsenic levels from 0.006 to

0.474 mg L in 35 sampled locations were

measured in 2004 (Junta Central de Agua y

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MARÍA AURORA ARMIENTA, ROBERT B. FINKELMAN Y HÉCTOR O. RUBIO-ARIAS: Medical Geology: Its Relevance to Mexico

Saneamiento, 2006). In addition to other health

problems that have been identified and studied

in this State.

2001; Sracek et al., 2010). Contaminated water

flows through fractures, and As concentration

is influenced by rainy periods (Rodríguez et al.,

004). Health effects due to As exposure

Central México

observed in this area, include dermatological

affectations (hyper- and hypo-pigmentation,

hyperkerathosis), and increment of transforming

growth factor alpha (TGF-) levels in bladder

urothelial cells (Armienta et al., 1997b; Resendiz

and Zúñiga, 2003; Valenzuela et al., 2007).

In Aguascalientes (Figure 1), estimation of

cancer risk due to ingestion of As in water

(

average 0.0145 mg L ) was 9.5 cases per

00,000 inhabitants for the lower water As

content, and 1.63 cases per 1000 inhabitants

for the highestAs concentration (Trejo-Vázquez

and Bonilla-Petriciolet, 2002). Fluoride (up to 4

For many years drinking water for Zimapán

was only supplied from this contaminated

limestone aquifer. At present, As levels have

decreased as a result of mixing with low-As

water delivered from another area and the

instalation of a treatment plant to remove As.

However, as is commonly found at other

historical mining zones, wastes from ore

processing polluted shallow wells that fortunately

are not used as drinking water sources.

mg L ) in water supply produced from

groundwater interaction with igneous rocks was

reported by Rodríguez et al. (1997).

In Guanajuato (Figure 1), various studies

attempting to explain the occurrence and health

affectations of arsenic have been carried out.

Arsenic was present in drinking water wells

(CODEREG, 2000; ESF, 2006; Rodríguez et al.,

006; Martínez-García, 2007; Armienta et al.,

The adverse influence of mining residues

on health was investigated in San Luis Potosí

where high concentrations of Pb and As were

measured in water, soils and sediments (Castro-

Larragoitia et al., 1997, Razo et al., 2004).

Children showed increased DNA damage

(Yáñez et al., 2003) after. Bioaccessible

concentrations of As and Pb also showed they

were exposed to concentrations above the

maximum criteria (Gamiño and Monroy, 2009).

2010). Fluoride is also present in Guanajuato.

Dental fluorosis was observed in Irapuato and

Salamanca where groundwater fluoride

-1

concentrations varied from 1 to 3 mg L (Ovalle,

996; Rodríguez et al., 2000, 2006). Occurrence

of fluorosis has also been reported in other cities

within Guanajuato (Fragoso et al., 1997;

Armienta et al., 2010). In the Independence

aquifer in northeast Guanajuato up to 16 mg L

of fluoride were measured and related to the

presence of acid volcanic rocks (Mahlknecht et

al., 2004). Dental fluorosis resulting from tainted

water ingestion was also reported in Querétaro

In San Luis Potosí (Figure 1), widespread

fluorosis from groundwater tainted intake has

been known for decades. Various studies to

determine the source and geochemical

processes responsible for concentrations above

drinking water standards have been conducted

for many years (Carrillo and Armienta, 1989;

Carrillo-Rivera et al.,1996, 2002). Fluoride is

released from the deep volcanic aquifer and

transported through fractures in the regional

groundwater flow. Health studies showed a

correlation between dental fluorosis and drinking

water fluoride concentrations in this state and

in Aguascalientes (Trejo-Vázquez and Bonilla-

Petriciolet, 2002). Children showed neuro-

toxicological effects as a result of enriched

(Sánchez-García et al., 2004).

Mineralization is an important source of

fluoride and arsenic in Mexican groundwater.

Medical geology studies have been conducted

for many years at the mining zone of Zimapán,

in Hidalgo (Figure 1) to determine concen-

trations, distribution and origin of As in

groundwater and related health effects. Arsenic

presence has mainly been linked to dissolution

of arsenic minerals, mainly arsenopyrite which

is widely distributed in the mineralized zones of

the limestone aquifer (Armienta et al., 1997a,

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MARÍA AURORA ARMIENTA, ROBERT B. FINKELMAN Y HÉCTOR O. RUBIO-ARIAS: Medical Geology: Its Relevance to Mexico

fluoride water intake (Estupiñán-Day et al.,

005). Groundwater contamination by As in

Zacatecas (Figure 1) was also reported with

levels up to 0.5 mg L (Leal-Ascencio and

Gelover-Santiago 2006; Armienta et al., 2010).

part having elevations ranging from 2,000 to

2,400 meters above sea level (masl) and with

mainly settlements of rural villages. The central

part of the state is characterized by rangeland

valleys known as Chihuahua´s great plains, with

elevations from 1,500 to 2,000 masl. This area

is dominated by short grass communities where

most human settlement can be observed. Lastly,

the eastern area is characterized by an arid

environment where the precipitation is below 200

mm per year presenting shrub land communities

and elevations from 850 to 1,500 masl. Each of

these three main environments in the State of

Chihuahua exhibits contrasting geology and

human health issues that we highlight in this

review. It is important to point out that

groundwater is the main hydrological resource

for drinking water supply.

Figure 3. Hyperkeratosis from ingestion of As-polluted water.

Chihuahua´s Natural Resources-Water

The most important watershed in the State

is associated with the Conchos River which is

the main river about 560 km in length. This river

originates in the municipality of Bocoyna which

is located in the upper part of the Tarahumara

region, flows through Chihuahua´s great plains,

and joins the Rio Grande/Rio Bravo in a very

arid zone. It is important to point out that the

Conchos River is the major tributary of the Rio

Grande/Rio Bravo and there has been evidence

that the water in the upper part of the river is

uncontaminated (Rubio et al., 2004). In contrast,

there is strong support of water contamination,

to different degree, in the central part (Gutiérrez

and Borrego, 1999; Gutiérrez et al., 2008; Rubio-

Arias et al., 2011) as well as in the lower part of

the river before joining the Rio Bravo-Rio Grande

Western México

Fluoride (up to 17.77 mg L ) has been

measured in Jalisco (Figure 1). Geothermal

processes may be linked with its presence. In

addition, arsenic is also higher than the drinking

water standard in this area with up to 0.263 mg

-1

L . Fluoride concentrations represent a potential

risk of dental and skeletal fluorosis. Furthermore,

skin diseases, gastrointestinal effects,

neurological damage, cardiovascular problems,

and hematological effects constitute potential

health effects from chronic arsenic exposure

(

Hurtado-Jiménez and Gardea-Torresdey, 2005,

006).

In Nayarit mean concentrations of arsenic

in drinking water provided from three wells were

(Holguín et al., 2006; Rubio-Arias et al., 2012)

below Mexican standards (0.025 mg L ) but

above WHO limits (0.010 mg L ) (Mora-Bueno

et al., 2012).

that represents a potential health risk for local

residents. Other aquatic ecosystems in the state

have been detected as contaminated such as

the Laguna de Bustillos (Rubio et al., 2004),

which in turn, is negatively affecting range and

crop land (Rubio et al., 2006).

Medical Geology issues in Chihuahua

The state of Chihuahua is the largest state

in Mexico and has three main geological

environments. The mountain areas known as

the Tarahumara region is located in the western

It is well confirmed that aquifers can become

contaminated from different elements leaching

from urban and rural wastewater (Squillace et

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MARÍA AURORA ARMIENTA, ROBERT B. FINKELMAN Y HÉCTOR O. RUBIO-ARIAS: Medical Geology: Its Relevance to Mexico

al., 2002) or could contain higher levels of

potentially toxic trace elements because of

natural cycling. Espino et al. (2007) reported that

drinking water samples from wells in the central

related to arsenopyrite, ascendant geothermal

flow, and high evaporation. Reverse osmosis is

currently used to remove As and other toxic

elements in Chihuahua (Espino-Valdés et al.,

2009; Camacho et al., 2011). In fact, about 88

small reverse osmosis treatment plants, partially

paid by the consumers were reported to be in

operation in 2006 (Calderón-Fernández, 2006).

part of the state exceeded the level of 10 mg L

N-NO , established by NOM-127-SSA1-1997

(

2000) This study is important when it is

observed that in the central part of the state there

are many human settlements that depends

There are 50 uraniferous areas in the state

of Chihuahua; the most important is Sierra

Blanca which contains about 60% of Mexico´s

uranium reserves (Villalba et al., 2011). In fact,

about 30 years ago there was established a

uranium milling process causing a significant

natural hazard. Villalba et al. (2011) reported

high levels of uranium in water samples with

00% on the water coming from wells and

where less than 50% of the localities have a

demineralization treatment system (JCAS,

006). High levels of nitrate in drinking water

have been associated with different diseases

Gulis et al., 2002; Volkner et al., 2005) and in

(

particular with the blue baby syndrome. The

Chihuahua´s nitrate problem has also been

detected in the north (Martinez-Rodriguez et al.,

-1

levels in a range of 0.38 to 1.39 Bq L . These

concentrations are above the maximum levels

established for the U.S. Environmental

Protection Agency (EPA) which specify a

2006) as well in the south where Rubio et al.

(

2004) noted level of nitrate as high as 10.53

-1

mg L in surface water of the Florido River which

is a tributary of the Conchos River.

-1

maximum level of 0.78 Bq L . In addition, these

researchers found high levels of radio and radon

in the water samples of the communities of

Aldama and the city of Chihuahua which is

higher than those values reported in the EPA

levels. In Aldama levels of radon in indoor air

samples were reported in a range from 29 to

The presence of arsenic in water through

natural and anthropogenic sources represents

another important issue in Chihuahua.

Camacho et al. (2011) detected high As

concentrations in groundwater while Rubio et

al. (2004) presented data on high levels of this

metalloid in surface water of the Conchos River.

At present, there is no information about water

consumption patterns in Mexico, nor in

Chihuahua, and the local communities or

owners of private wells are not required to control

the As level, or even other contaminants, from

their drinking and cooking water. This is important

when it is considered that Chihuahua has about

422 Bq m (Colmenero et al., 2004) which are

higher than values established in international

norms. The authors estimated an annual

effective dose of 3.0 mSv which is higher than

the average international norms of 1.2 mSv.

Final Remarks

Different alternatives have been given to

Medical Geology problems in some areas of

México. Mixing of poor quality water with good

quality water has been a widespread option to

decrease the contaminant levels. Highly polluted

wells have been closed and substituted by safe-

water wells or surface water in some places.

Household filters were distributed in some As

polluted areas. Studies have been carried out to

develop new affordable treatment methods.

These treatment developments, which offer a

promising option to remove As and other

contaminants, deserve a special review.

3,000 wells in the State and some of them are

utilized for the families in different activities (CFE,

011).

Volcanic rocks and lacustrine sediments

were proposed as sources of groundwater As

in different zones of Chihuahua (Reyes Cortés

et al., 2006a, 2006b; Mahlknecht et al., 2008). In

the Delicias–Meoqui and Jimenez–Camargo

aquifers 50% of the wells were reported with As

concentrations higher than 0.05 mg L

Camacho et al., 2011). Arsenic has been

(

• Vol. VII, No. 3 • Septiembre-Diciembre 2013 •

MARÍA AURORA ARMIENTA, ROBERT B. FINKELMAN Y HÉCTOR O. RUBIO-ARIAS: Medical Geology: Its Relevance to Mexico

CAMACHO, L. M., M. Gutierrez, M.T.Alarcon-Herrera, M.L. S. Deng.

However, many problems are still waiting for

011. Occurrence and treatment of arsenic in groundwater

solutions. Much is still to be done in México;

regular analyses of the most common

contaminants: fluoride and arsenic, must be

done in every drinking water source.

Laboratories must be provided with the

adequate analytical equipment to perform these

determinations nationwide. Treatment systems

must be installed in every place where the

presence of arsenic and fluoride concentrations

are higher than drinking water standards.

Affordable and environmental-sustainable

methods suitable for every contaminated

location should be promoted by joining efforts

between researchers and authorities.

Maintenance of current treatment systems

and soil in northern Mexico and southwestern USA.

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CARRILLO-RIVERA, J.J., A. Cardona, W.M. Edmunds. 2002. Use of

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(

household or municipal) must always be

included as a priority in municipal expense

programs and supported by all authority levels.

Overall, population health must be placed in the

first in priority of national and local authorities.

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Este artículo es citado así:

Armienta, M. A., R. B. Finkelman and H. O. Rubio-Arias. 2013: Medical Geology: Its Relevance to Mexico.

TECNOCIENCIA Chihuahua 7(3): 152-162.

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MARÍA AURORA ARMIENTA, ROBERT B. FINKELMAN Y HÉCTOR O. RUBIO-ARIAS: Medical Geology: Its Relevance to Mexico

Resúmenes curriculares de autor y coautores

MARÍA AURORA ARMIENTA HERNÁNDEZ. Realizó estudios de Ingeniería Química en la Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa y la Universidad

Iberoamericana y se graduó (por la U. Iberoamericana y la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México) con Mención Honorífica en

1997. Desarrolló sus estudios de posgrado en la UNAM, donde obtuvo el grado de Maestría en Ciencias (Química Analítica) en 1988

y el Doctorado en Geofísica (Aguas Subterráneas) en 1992. Le fue otorgada la Medalla Gabino Barreda (UNAM) por sus estudios

de maestría y la Mención Honorífica en el examen doctoral. Actualmente es Investigadora Titular C de T.C. en el Instituto de Geofísica

y profesora del Posgrado en Ciencias de la Tierra de la UNAM. Sus áreas de investigación comprenden la geoquímica ambiental,

hidrogeoquímica y los procesos geoquímicos asociados a la actividad volcánica. Ha dirigido 12 tesis de licenciatura, 13 de maestría

y 6 de doctorado. Su obra científica suma 88 artículos publicados en revistas arbitradas internacionales, 28 capítulos en libros, 2

libros editados, 28 artículos en memorias arbitrados y 42 artículos en memorias no arbitrados, así como 14 artículos de divulgación.

Ha impartido cursos cortos y conferencias en diversos lugares del país, así como en España, Alemania, EUA, Uruguay y Perú. Ha

sido responsable de 15 proyectos con financiamiento externo a la UNAM. Fue Presidenta del Instituto Nacional de Geoquímica y

"Delegate at large" de la Association for Women Geoscientists, fue responsable por parte de México de la red CYTED Iberoarsen:

El arsénico en Iberoamérica. Distribución, metodologías analíticas y tecnologías económicas de remoción. Recientemente fue electa

como "Vice-Chair for Geosciences" de la International Medical Geology Association (IMGA). Es miembro del Sistema Nacional de

Investigadores en el Nivel III, de El Colegio de Sinaloa y del Comité Científico Asesor del Volcán Popocatépetl. En los últimos 5 años

ha realizado arbitrajes para 18 revistas internacionales, para proyectos de CONACYT, del gobierno del Distrito Federal, de la UNAM,

y para la ANPCyT de Argentina.

ROBERT B. FINKELMAN. Robert Finkelman retired in 2005 after 32 years with the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), is currently a Research

Professor in the Dept. of Geosciences at the University of Texas at Dallas and an Adjunct Professor at the China University of

Geosciences, Beijing. He is an internationally recognized scientist widely known for his work on coal chemistry and as a leader of

the emerging field of Medical Geology. Dr. Finkelman has degrees in geology, geochemistry, and chemistry. He has a diverse

professional background having worked for the federal government (USGS) and private industry (Exxon), formed a consulting

company (Environmental and Coal Associates), and has lectured and provided mentorship at colleges and universities around the

world. Most of Dr. Finkelman's professional career has been devoted to understanding the properties of coal and how these

properties affect coal's technological performance, economic byproduct potential and environmental and health impacts. For the

past 17 years he has devoted his efforts to developing the field of Medical Geology. Dr. Finkelman is the author of some 700

publications and has been invited to speak in more than 50 countries. Dr. Finkelman has served as Chairman of the Geological

Society of America's Coal Geology Division; Chair of the International Association for Cosmochemistry and Geochemistry, Working

Group on Geochemistry and Health; founding member and past chair of the International Medical Geology Association; President of

the Society for Organic Petrology; member of the American Registry of Pathology Board of Scientific Directors and is Past-Chair of

the GSA's Geology and Health Division. He was a recipient of the Nininger Meteorite Award; recipient of the Gordon H. Wood Jr.

Memorial Award from the AAPG Eastern Section; a Fellow of the Geological Society of America; and a recipient of the Cady Award

from the GSA's Coal Geology Division. Dr. Finkelman was also awarded a U. S. State Department Embassy Science Fellowship for

an assignment in South Africa and was a member of a National Research Council committee looking at the future of coal in the U.S.

HÉCTOR OSBALDO RUBIO ARIAS. Terminó su programa Doctoral en New Mexico State University, en los Estados Unidos de Norteamérica

en el año 1989. Fue Investigador Titular en el Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarias (INIFAP) por 31

años, donde se encuentra ya jubilado. En la actualidad, es Profesor de medio tiempo en la Facultad de Zootecnia y Ecología de la

Universidad Autónoma de Chihuahua y fue maestro invitado por el Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados (CIMAV-

CONACYT) desde el año 2004 hasta diciembre de 2012. El Dr. Rubio tiene tres libros publicados y aparece como co-autor en otros

tres. Tiene alrededor de 50 publicaciones internacionales y 40 nacionales. Ha participado en reuniones en la FAO (Roma 1974),

Venezuela (OEA) Israel, Francia, Italia, Portugal, Grecia, República de Malta, China, Japón, Estados Unidos de Norteamérica,

Inglaterra, España y otros en América Latina. Es miembro del Comité Editorial de varias revistas tanto internacionales como

nacionales así como revisor científico. Es evaluador en diversos fondos como en los fondos sectoriales SAGARPA-CONACYT y

CONAFOR-CONACYT donde fue miembro de la Comisión de Evaluación en el periodo de 2008 hasta 2012. El Dr. Rubio es miembro

del Sistema Nacional de Investigadores y aparece como experto en bioseguridad por la CONABIO. Fue galardonado con el premio

Rotario Chihuahua en ciencia y tecnología en el 2009. En los últimos cinco años, el Dr. Rubio ha ofrecido como ponente y/o

participante alrededor de 40 cursos de capacitación, incluidos en CASA-ANUIES y diversas Universidades y Centros de Investigación.

• Vol. VII, No. 3 • Septiembre-Diciembre 2013 •