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Perceived Emotional Intelligence in University Students: A Cross-
Sectional Analysis of Emotional Attention, Clarity, and Repair Using
the TMMS-24
[es] Gestión emocional en estudiantes universitarios: análisis de la
atención, claridad y reparación emocional en la Universidad de
Burgos
Itziar Quevedo-Bayona
Universidad de Burgos (España)
María del Camino Escolar-Llamazares
Universidad de Burgos (España)
Nubia Hernández-Flórez
University of Sergio Arboleda (Colombia)
Juan Camilo Pazoz-Alfonso
University of Sergio Arboleda (Colombia)
María de los Ángeles Martínez-Martín
Universidad de Burgos (España)
Olena Klimenko
Institución Universitaria de Envigado (Colombia)
Recibido: 2026/03/19
Aceptado para su publicación: 2026/04/05
Publicado: 2026/06/26
RESUMEN
The mental health of university students has emerged as a
critical concern in higher education, with rising prevalence
of anxiety, depression, and psychological distress.
Perceived emotional intelligence and particularly the
capacity to manage emotions is considered a key protective
factor for psychological wellbeing. The Trait Meta-Mood
Scale (TMMS-24) operationalizes this construct through
three dimensions: emotional attention, emotional clarity,
and emotional repair. Objective: To analyze levels of
emotional attention, clarity, and repair in university
students participating in the University Health Care Service
(SUAS) of the University of Burgos, and to examine
differences by gender, field of knowledge, and academic
year. Method: A descriptive, cross-sectional, non-
experimental study was conducted with a convenience
sample of 53 university students (40 women, 13 men; Mage
= 26.28, SD = 9.99). Participants completed the Spanish
ABSTRACT
La salud mental de los estudiantes universitarios constituye
una preocupación creciente debido a las demandas
académicas, personales y sociales propias de esta etapa. La
inteligencia emocional, especialmente la capacidad de
gestionar las emociones, se considera un factor relevante
para favorecer la adaptación y el bienestar psicológico. El
modelo TMMS plantea tres dimensiones: atención, claridad
y reparación emocional. Objetivo: Analizar los niveles de
atención, claridad y reparación emocional en estudiantes de
la Universidad de Burgos, así como las diferencias en
función del género, rama de conocimiento y curso
académico. Metodología: Estudio descriptivo transversal
con muestra de conveniencia de 53 estudiantes
universitarios (40 mujeres, 13 hombres; Medad = 26.28, DT
= 9.99). Se administró el TMMS-24 mediante formulario
online. Se realizaron análisis descriptivos, pruebas t de
Student y ANOVA de un factor. Resultados: Fiabilidad
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version of the TMMS-24 via an online form. Independent-
samples t-tests and one-way ANOVAs were used; effect
sizes (Cohen's d, η²) were computed for all inferential
analyses. Ethical approval was granted by the Bioethics
Committee of the University of Burgos. Results: Internal
consistency was adequate (α = .892). Emotional attention
fell within the adequate range (M = 28.47, SD = 6.33), while
emotional clarity (M = 22.09, SD = 7.33) and emotional
repair (M = 23.70, SD = 6.35) were both in the low range.
No statistically significant differences were found across
gender, field of knowledge, or academic year on any TMMS-
24 dimension (all p > .30; effect sizes negligible to small).
Conclusions: Students demonstrated adequate capacity to
identify their emotional states but showed notable deficits
in comprehending and regulating them. The homogeneity
of emotional profiles across demographic subgroups
underscores the need for structured university-level
programs targeting emotional clarity and repair
competencies.
adecuada (α = .892). Atención emocional en rango adecuado
(M = 28.47; DT = 6.33); claridad (M = 22.09; DT = 7.33) y
reparación emocional (M = 23.70; DT = 6.35) en rango bajo.
Sin diferencias significativas por género, rama de
conocimiento ni curso académico. Conclusiones: Los
estudiantes presentan capacidad adecuada para identificar
sus emociones, pero mayores dificultades para
comprenderlas y regularlas. Los resultados destacan la
necesidad de promover programas universitarios de
desarrollo de competencias emocionales
PALABRAS CLAVE
KEYWORDS
Perceived emotional intelligence; emotional
attention; emotional clarity; emotional repair;
TMMS-24; university students; mental health; higher
education.
Inteligencia emocional percibida; atención
emocional; claridad emocional; reparación
emocional; estudiantes universitarios.
Cómo citar (APA 7ª Edición):
Klimenko, O., Pazoz-Alfonso, J. C., Hernández-Flórez, N., Quevedo-Bayona, I., Martínez-Martín, M. A.,
y Escolar-Llamazares, M. C. (2026). Perceived Emotional Intelligence in University Students: A
Cross-Sectional Analysis of Emotional Attention, Clarity, and Repair Using the TMMS-24.
Qvadrata, estudios sobre educación, artes y humanidades, 8(16), 81-90.
https://doi.org/10.54167/qvadrata.v8i16.2419
Introducción
The mental health of university students has emerged as one of the most pressing concerns in
contemporary higher education. The university transition is characterized by significant academic,
personal, and social demands that require sustained adaptive effort. Students must navigate new
responsibilities, heavier workloads, continuous evaluation processes, professional uncertainty, and —
frequently substantial changes in their social and family environments. These combined pressures place
the university population at heightened risk for emotional and psychological difficulties, making the
promotion of psychological wellbeing a priority for institutions and researchers (Campbell et al., 2022;
Worsley et al., 2022).
Numerous studies have documented a marked increase in the prevalence of anxiety, depression,
stress, and general psychological distress among university students, along with their negative
consequences for academic performance, life satisfaction, and study retention. This context has driven a
search for protective factors that support adaptation to university demands and help maintain adequate
mental health. Among these factors, emotional intelligence and particularly the capacity to manage one's
own emotions has gained increasing prominence in the psychological research literature (Ahmed et al.,
2023; Sánchez-Bolívar et al., 2022; Llamas-Díaz et al., 2022).
Emotional intelligence can be understood as the set of abilities related to the perception,
understanding, and regulation of emotions, enabling individuals to use emotional information adaptively
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when responding to environmental demands (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). In university populations, higher
levels of emotional intelligence have been associated with better mental health, greater subjective
wellbeing, lower anxious and depressive symptomatology, and more favorable academic adjustment
(Sánchez-Álvarez et al., 2016; Acebes-Sánchez et al., 2025).
One of the most widely used models for evaluating perceived emotional intelligence is that
proposed by Salovey et al. (1995), operationalized through the Trait Meta-Mood Scale (TMMS). This
model conceptualizes emotional management through three complementary dimensions: emotional
attention, emotional clarity, and emotional repair, describing how individuals perceive, understand, and
regulate their own emotional states. Recent evidence continues to support this three-dimensional
structure and confirms the validity of the TMMS-24 as a reference instrument for assessing emotional
management in university students (Fernández-Berrocal et al., 2004; Fernández-Berrocal et al., 2025).
Emotional attention refers to the degree to which individuals observe and attend to their own
emotional states. This dimension represents the first step toward effective regulation. However, excessive
attention — particularly when not accompanied by adequate understanding and emotional regulation —
can promote rumination, worry, and vulnerability to psychological distress. Research continues to show
that emotional attention has a complex relationship with wellbeing, dependent on its interaction with the
remaining TMMS dimensions (Salovey et al., 1995).
Emotional clarity refers to the capacity to identify, understand, and differentiate one's own
emotions. Students with greater emotional clarity demonstrate better comprehension of their affective
experiences, which facilitates decision-making, problem-solving, and the use of more adaptive coping
strategies. Recent studies confirm that this dimension is positively associated with psychological
wellbeing, life satisfaction, and academic adjustment, and serves as an important protective factor against
stress and emotional symptomatology (Salovey et al., 1995; Sánchez-Álvarez et al., 2016).
Emotional repair represents the perceived capacity to effectively regulate one's emotions —
reducing negative emotional states and fostering positive affective states. Current literature identifies this
dimension as a primary predictor of mental health in university populations, associating it with lower
levels of anxiety, depression, and stress, as well as greater resilience and academic adjustment (Salovey
et al., 1995; Acebes-Sánchez et al., 2025).
Although the three dimensions belong to the same construct, the evidence shows they maintain
differential relationships with psychological wellbeing. While clarity and repair consistently associate
positively with mental health, emotional attention appears adaptive only when accompanied by high
levels of understanding and regulation. Research with Spanish university students has confirmed that
clarity and repair carry the strongest protective capacity against psychological distress (Sánchez-Álvarez
et al., 2016; Acebes-Sánchez et al., 2025).
The present study was conducted within the framework of the University Health Care Service
(SUAS) of the University of Burgos — a specialized support unit that offers health promotion,
psychological support, and personal development programs to the student community. By recruiting
participants through SUAS programs, the study captures a subgroup of students who have actively sought
or engaged with institutional support, offering a unique window into the emotional management profiles
of students navigating university life with institutional accompaniment.
Against this background, the present study aims to analyze levels of emotional attention,
emotional clarity, and emotional repair in students of the University of Burgos, characterize their
emotional management profile, and examine whether any differences exist according to gender, field of
knowledge, and academic year.
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Objectives
General Objective. To analyze the level of emotional management in university students of the
University of Burgos by evaluating the dimensions of emotional attention, emotional clarity, and
emotional repair using the TMMS-24.
Specific Objectives
O1. Describe the levels of emotional attention, emotional clarity, and emotional repair in
university students of the University of Burgos.
O2. Analyze whether there are differences in emotional management dimensions by student
gender.
O3. Analyze whether there are differences in emotional management dimensions by field of
knowledge.
O4. Analyze whether there are differences in emotional management dimensions by academic
year.
Hypotheses
H1. University students at the University of Burgos will present adequate levels in the dimensions
of emotional attention, emotional clarity, and emotional repair.
H2. Students will show similar levels across the three dimensions by gender, with no statistically
significant differences between men and women.
H3. Students will present similar levels of emotional attention, clarity, and repair across fields of
knowledge, with no statistically significant differences.
H4. Academic year will not significantly influence emotional management skills; similar levels of
attention, clarity, and repair will be observed across year groups.
Method
Design
The study adopts a quantitative approach through a non-experimental, cross-sectional,
descriptive-comparative design. It is non-experimental because no intentional manipulation of study
variables was performed; instead, students' emotional characteristics were examined in their natural
context. The cross-sectional design means data collection took place at a single point in time, yielding a
descriptive snapshot of participants' emotional management profiles.
Sample
The sample comprised 53 students from the University of Burgos who voluntarily participated
during academic years 2024–2026. Participants were selected through non-probability convenience
sampling, limited to students enrolled in one or more programs offered by the University Health Care
Service (SUAS). Of the total, 40 were women (75.5%) and 13 were men (24.5%). Regarding level of study,
48 students (90.6%) were enrolled in undergraduate programs and 5 (9.4%) in postgraduate programs.
The distribution by field of knowledge covered all five academic branches at the University of
Burgos: Social and Legal Sciences (n = 24; 45.3%), Health Sciences (n = 16; 30.2%), Sciences (n = 5;
9.4%), Engineering and Architecture (n = 5; 9.4%), and Arts and Humanities (n = 3; 5.7%). The mean age
was 26.28 years (SD = 9.99), ranging from 18 to 55 years, reflecting the heterogeneous age profile typical
of SUAS program participants, which includes both traditional-age students and adult learners.
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Instrument
Emotional management was assessed using the Trait Meta-Mood Scale-24 (TMMS-24), the
Spanish adaptation by Fernández-Berrocal et al. (2004) of the original TMMS developed by Salovey et
al. (1995). The TMMS-24 is one of the most widely used self-report instruments for evaluating perceived
emotional intelligence, understood as individuals' perception of their own capacity to attend to,
understand, and regulate their emotional states.
The scale is grounded in the emotional intelligence model of Salovey and Mayer (1997), which
conceptualizes emotional management as a set of abilities related to the perception, comprehension, and
regulation of emotions. The TMMS-24 comprises 24 items distributed equally across three subscales of
eight items each:
Emotional attention (items 1–8): the perceived capacity to identify and attend to one's own
emotional states, reflecting the degree to which a person is aware of their emotions and dedicates
cognitive resources to observing and recognizing them.
Emotional clarity (items 9–16): the capacity to comprehend, differentiate, and appropriately
interpret one's own emotions, allowing identification of what is felt and why a given emotional state is
experienced.
Emotional repair (items 17–24): the perceived capacity to regulate negative emotions and sustain
positive emotional states, reflecting the ability to modify affective states when necessary.
Each item is rated on a five-point Likert scale from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (Strongly agree).
Subscale scores are obtained by summing the eight items per dimension. Higher scores indicate greater
perceived competence. The instrument provides gender-differentiated norms, classifying scores as low,
adequate, or high.
In the Spanish adaptation, Fernández-Berrocal et al. (2004) reported Cronbach's alpha
coefficients of .90 (Attention), .90 (Clarity), and .86 (Repair). Recent validation studies have confirmed
the stability of the three-factor structure and adequate reliability across university populations, with
alpha values generally exceeding .80 for all three dimensions (Fernández-Berrocal et al., 2025; Sánchez-
Bolívar et al., 2025).
Procedure
Prior to data collection, the study received approval from the Bioethics Committee of the
University of Burgos, ensuring compliance with ethical standards applicable to human research and
guaranteeing confidentiality, voluntary participation, and personal data protection.
Once ethical approval was obtained, SUAS programs were launched and promoted across the
university. All students participating in SUAS activities were invited to join the study. Those who accepted
signed an informed consent form specifying the study purpose, data confidentiality, anonymized
handling of responses, and the right to withdraw at any time without consequence.
Consenting participants completed an online questionnaire created via Microsoft Forms, which
included sociodemographic and academic items (age, gender, level of study, degree program, field of
knowledge) followed by the TMMS-24. Completion occurred in a single session; confidentiality and
anonymity were maintained throughout. Data were subsequently exported for statistical analysis.
Data Analysis
Data were analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics. Descriptive statistics (frequencies, percentages,
means, and standard deviations) were computed for sociodemographic variables and TMMS-24
subscales. Prior to inferential analyses, normality was verified via Shapiro–Wilk tests and homogeneity
of variance via Levene's test; both assumptions were satisfied.
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Independent-samples t-tests were used to examine gender differences on each TMMS-24
dimension. One-way ANOVAs were conducted to examine differences by field of knowledge and academic
year. A significance level of p < .05 was adopted throughout. Effect sizes were computed for all inferential
tests: Cohen's d for t-tests and partial eta-squared (η²) for ANOVAs, following conventional benchmarks
(small: d = 0.20, η² = .01; medium: d = 0.50, η² = .06; large: d = 0.80, η² = .14; Cohen, 1988).
Results
Prior to hypothesis testing, internal consistency of the TMMS-24 was examined using Cronbach's
alpha, yielding α = .892, indicating adequate reliability for the present sample.
Descriptive Analysis of TMMS-24 Dimensions (H1)
H1 predicted that students would show adequate levels across all three TMMS-24 dimensions.
Emotional attention yielded a mean of M = 28.47 (SD = 6.33), falling within the adequate range according
to gender-differentiated TMMS-24 norms. Emotional clarity (M = 22.09, SD = 7.33) and emotional repair
(M = 23.70, SD = 6.35) both fell in the low range. Because the three dimensions differed in their
classification level, H1 was not confirmed.
Gender Differences (H2)
H2 predicted no statistically significant gender differences. Independent-samples t-tests were
conducted for each dimension. Women scored slightly higher on emotional attention (M = 28.50 vs. M =
28.38), t(51) = −0.057, p = .955, d = 0.02. Men scored higher on emotional clarity (M = 23.92 vs. M =
21.50), t(51) = 1.036, p = .305, d = 0.33; and on emotional repair (M = 25.00 vs. M = 23.28), t(51) =
0.849, p = .400, d = 0.27. None of the differences reached statistical significance. Effect sizes were
negligible for attention and small for clarity and repair, indicating that while men tended to score higher
on the regulatory dimensions, the magnitude of these differences was minimal in this sample. H2 was
confirmed.
[Note to authors: Standard deviations for the gender subgroups were reported as "X" in the
original manuscript. The effect sizes above were estimated using the formula d = t × √[(n₁+n₂)/(n₁×n₂)].
We recommend reporting the actual subgroup SDs in the final version.]
Differences by Field of Knowledge (H3)
H3 predicted no significant differences across fields of knowledge. One-way ANOVAs confirmed
this prediction for all three dimensions. For emotional attention, students in Sciences showed the highest
mean (M = 31.20, SD = 7.88), followed by Social and Legal Sciences (M = 29.46), Engineering and
Architecture (M = 29.00), Arts and Humanities (M = 27.00), and Health Sciences (M = 26.25); F(4, 48)
= 0.914, p = .463, η² = .07. For emotional clarity, the Sciences branch again scored highest (M = 26.80),
F(4, 48) = 0.846, p = .503, η² = .07. For emotional repair, the Sciences branch also led (M = 26.40), F(4,
48) = 0.536, p = .710, η² = .04. No comparison reached statistical significance, confirming H3.
Differences by Academic Year (H4)
H4 predicted no significant differences across academic years. First-year students showed the
highest mean for emotional attention (M = 29.33, SD = 6.53), F(3, 49) = 0.379, p = .768, η² = .02. For
emotional clarity, third-year students scored highest (M = 24.30), F(3, 49) = 0.604, p = .616, η² = .04.
For emotional repair, first-year students again led (M = 25.92), F(3, 49) = 0.725, p = .542, η² = .04. None
of the comparisons was significant, confirming H4.
Discussion
Regarding H1, students did not show similar levels across the three TMMS-24 dimensions.
Emotional attention was adequate, whereas emotional clarity and repair fell in the low range. This pattern
suggests that participants can identify and attend to their emotional states but have greater difficulty
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comprehending and regulating them effectively. This finding is consistent with the three-dimensional
TMMS-24 model, in which attention constitutes a distinct component from clarity and repair — the latter
two being more directly related to adaptive emotional management (Sánchez-Bolívar et al., 2025).
The literature indicates that high emotional attention without sufficient clarity or regulation can
promote rumination and psychological vulnerability, particularly in academic environments with
frequent stressors (Ovejas, 2025). Emotional regulation difficulties have been linked to higher levels of
anxiety and impaired adaptation to university life (Arias et al., 2025). This dissociation between
awareness and regulation is consistent with findings by Acebes-Sánchez et al. (2025) in a larger sample
of Madrid undergraduates (n = 647), where emotional clarity and repair — but not attention alone —
significantly predicted mental health outcomes. The pattern also aligns with Ardiles-Irarrázabal et al.
(2026), whose integrative review concluded that university students with stronger emotional
comprehension and regulation skills exhibit higher psychological wellbeing and resilience. Collectively,
these findings highlight the value of programs specifically targeting the comprehension and regulation of
emotions within university settings.
Regarding H2, no statistically significant gender differences were found on any TMMS-24
dimension, confirming the hypothesis. Although descriptive trends showed women scoring slightly
higher on emotional attention and men slightly higher on clarity and repair — a pattern congruent with
classical findings in the EI literature (Extremera & Fernández-Berrocal, 2005) — effect sizes were
negligible to small (d range: 0.02–0.33), suggesting limited practical significance. The scientific evidence
on gender differences in perceived emotional intelligence remains heterogeneous. Some studies report
that women show greater emotional attention while men show higher repair scores, whereas others
observe differences only on clarity and repair, or find no significant differences at all (Ovejas, 2025;
Sánchez-Bolívar et al., 2025). Importantly, Urbón et al. (2025) found in a sample of 721 Spanish
university students that women scored higher on interpersonal emotional attention and expression, but
no significant gender differences emerged for life satisfaction or eudaimonic wellbeing, reinforcing the
view that emotional management is not simply a gendered competence but depends substantially on
individual and contextual factors. The absence of significant gender differences in the present study is
therefore coherent with the current trend in the literature suggesting that emotional competence is
shaped more by individual experience, contextual variables, and specific emotional dimensions than by
gender per se (Acebes-Sánchez et al., 2025).
Regarding H3, no significant differences were found across fields of knowledge for any TMMS-24
dimension, confirming the hypothesis. Although students in Sciences descriptively showed the highest
means across all three dimensions, these differences were small and non-significant. The η² values for
field comparisons ranged from .04 to .07, all below the conventional medium-effect threshold (η² = .06),
indicating that field of knowledge explained very little variance in emotional management scores. The
limited evidence on field differences in EI is inconclusive, and recent studies do not support a consistent
pattern of superiority for health sciences or social sciences students (Palacios et al., 2025). This finding
suggests that emotional intelligence, as measured by the TMMS-24, functions as a transversal
competence whose perceived level at university entry is relatively independent of the academic field
students are enrolled in — a conclusion with important implications for the universal rather than
discipline-specific design of emotional literacy interventions. Research comparing TMMS-24 profiles
across disciplines similarly finds no systematic advantage for any particular academic area (Martínez-
Rodríguez & Ferreira, 2024). As Otero Bocanegra et al. (2026) argue, emotional intelligence is better
understood as a general adaptive resource modulated by individual experience than as a domain-specific
skill associated with particular academic cultures.
Regarding H4, no significant differences were found by academic year, confirming the hypothesis.
Emotional management profiles remained relatively stable from first to fourth year. This indicates that
mere academic progression does not automatically increase perceived emotional competencies. The η²
values for academic year comparisons were small (range: .02–.04), confirming negligible between-year
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variance. This stability contrasts with developmental expectations that accumulating life and academic
experience would organically enhance emotional regulation, and instead points to the need for explicit,
structured interventions. These findings are consistent with evidence suggesting that emotional
competencies are best developed through structured training and emotional education programs,
particularly when these are explicitly integrated into university contexts (Ardiles-Irarrázabal et al., 2026).
The results therefore reinforce the case for institutional programs aimed at developing socioemotional
competencies throughout the university journey, not only at entry.
Limitations
The present study has several limitations that should be considered when interpreting the
findings. First, the small sample size (n = 53) limits statistical power and restricts generalizability.
Second, the convenience sample drawn exclusively from SUAS program participants may introduce
selection bias, as these students may differ emotionally from the broader university population. Third,
the pronounced gender imbalance (75.5% women) and unequal distribution across fields and year groups
constrain the power of subgroup comparisons. Fourth, the use of a self-report measure means that scores
reflect perceived rather than actual emotional competence, which may be influenced by social desirability
or introspective limitations. Fifth, the cross-sectional design precludes causal inference and the analysis
of change over time. Finally, standard deviations for gender subgroups were not included in the original
data extract, which precluded reporting of fully informative descriptive statistics and may affect the
precision of effect size estimates; authors are encouraged to report complete subgroup descriptive
statistics in the final submission.
Future Research Directions
Building on the limitations identified, future studies should employ larger, probabilistic samples
drawn from multiple Spanish universities to improve representativeness and generalizability.
Researchers should also aim for more balanced distributions across gender, field, and year groups to
strengthen comparative analyses.
Longitudinal designs are needed to track changes in emotional management competencies across
academic years and to identify developmental windows during which targeted interventions may be most
effective. Complementing self-report measures with multi-method approaches including performance-
based EI tasks, psychophysiological measures, or structured behavioral observations would yield a more
comprehensive assessment of emotional competence.
Given the low levels of emotional clarity and repair observed, future work should evaluate the
efficacy of structured intervention programs within university settings, including emotion regulation
training, third-generation psychological therapies, and technology-assisted approaches such as virtual
reality. Particularly promising is the integration of emotional education components directly into
academic curricula rather than relying solely on opt-in extracurricular services such as SUAS, which by
definition reach a self-selected minority. Investigating whether SUAS participation itself moderates
changes in TMMS-24 scores over time would be a valuable extension of the present work.
Conclusions
This study analyzed levels of perceived emotional management in 53 University of Burgos
students enrolled in SUAS programs, examining emotional attention, clarity, and repair via the TMMS-
24 and testing differences by gender, field of knowledge, and academic year.
In relation to O1, students showed adequate emotional attention alongside low emotional clarity
and repair, revealing a profile characterized by awareness of emotions without adequate comprehension
or regulation. This dissociation represents an important target for institutional support.
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In relation to O2, no statistically significant gender differences were found on any TMMS-24
dimension, suggesting that emotional management as perceived is relatively similar for men and women
in this sample.
In relation to O3, no significant differences emerged across fields of knowledge, indicating that
emotional management profiles are comparable regardless of academic discipline, and that emotional
competencies function as transversal skills.
In relation to O4, academic year had no significant association with emotional management
profiles, suggesting that university progression alone does not produce meaningful improvements in
emotional competencies.
Taken together, the results call for universities to go beyond reactive support services and actively
integrate emotional education into institutional programming. Developing emotional clarity and repair
competencies through evidence-based, structured interventions should be a priority for the promotion of
student wellbeing and academic success.
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