e-ISSN: 2992-8184

ARTÍCULO

Learning English as a Second Language in children

from low socioeconomic level

Lilian Elizabeth Baño Lucio

Tecnológico de Monterrey (México)

Fidel González-Quiñones

Universidad Autónoma de Chihuahua (México)

Silvia Pradas Montilla

Universidad Alfonso X El Sabio (España)

Recibido: 3/10/2024 ■ Revisado: 17/11/2024 ■ Aceptado: 09/12/2024

Abstract. The learning of English as a second language is a topic of great importance in the Mexican

educaꢁonal context, and language educaꢁon programs begin in primary educaꢁon from an early

age. This research considers neuropsycholinguisꢁc theoreꢁcal backgrounds, and its main objecꢁve

is to determine, through a quasi-experiment, whether a treatment based on 80% pracꢁcal exercises

and 20% theoreꢁcal exercises can improve the average grades of a group of elementary-level

students, also idenꢁfying the inﬂuence of certain factors on the learning of the English language.

The main evidence obtained inferenꢁally through a hypothesis test demonstrated that the proposed

treatment is eﬀecꢁve, and signiﬁcant correlaꢁons are provided that, when interpreted, allow the

idenꢁﬁcaꢁon of factors that posiꢁvely and negaꢁvely inﬂuence the learning of English.

Keywords: English as a Second Language, Psycholinguistics, elementary education, child, low

socioeconomic level, language and literacy.

How to cite: Baño Lucio, L. E. y González-Quiñones, F. (2024). Leaning English as a Second Language

in children of socioeconomic low. Revista Estudios de la Información, 2(2), 115-133.

hꢀps://doi.org/10.54167/rei.v2i2.1743

Introducꢀon

There are various blockages that aﬀect the learning of English as a second language (ESL) in

public school students, the main aspects are socioeconomic both in the educaꢁonal system and in

the family context (Bonilla and Díaz, 2019 ; Bocchio et al. al., 2020 ; Geꢁe, 2020 ). These factors are

related to self-esteem and how it aﬀects learning and behavioral aꢂtude (Gardner and Lambert,

2019 ). Moꢁvaꢁon or self-determinaꢁon to learn and the opposite is derived from this factor, which

in ESL is called language anxiety (Luria et al., 2021 ).

Other important aspects are malnutriꢁon, situaꢁons of abuse and sociocultural aspects, which,

enhanced by a learning methodology based on naꢁvist and behavioral theories, coerce the

neurocogniꢁve capacity of learners, especially in late learners who did not receive a bilingual

educaꢁon in their early years (Moreta et al., 2019 ; Ainamani et al., 2021 ; Singleton and Leśniewska,

2024 | Revista Estudios de la Información, 2(2), 115-133.

hꢀps://doi.org/10.54167/rei.v2i2.1743

115

Baño Lucio, L. E., et al. (2024)

2021 ; T e lep et al., 2021 ). Neurolinguisꢁcs in educaꢁon invites us to quesꢁon and rethink the

psychoaﬀecꢁve and neurobiological condiꢁons that would limit the acquisiꢁon of a second language

(L2). The main cogniꢁve and emoꢁonal aspects involved are: (1) Broca's area is responsible for area

is responsible for speech producꢁon; (2) Wernicke's area corresponds to speech comprehension and

is related to semanꢁc and lexical deﬁcits; (3) The limbic system, also known as the emoꢁonal brain,

regulates emoꢁons; (4) Gray maꢀer: is the network of cell bodies that process and release new

informaꢁon through the axons of the white maꢀer, which controls: movement, memory, sensory

percepꢁon, speech, self-control and decision making; and (5) White maꢀer: it is the nerve ﬁber

composed of myelinated axons that coordinates communicaꢁon between gray maꢀer and other

areas of the brain (Mercadante and Tadi, 2021 ; Thau et al., 2021 ; Li et al., 2022 ) .

Neuroscience has found that learning ESL oﬀers cogniꢁve beneﬁts to humans. Furthermore,

magneꢁc resonance imaging (MRI) studies reveal that neuroplasꢁcity and neuronal acꢁvity improve

in late language learners (Legault et al., 2019 ). These late learners also show an increase in corꢁcal

thickness and gray maꢀer volume, to which Bubbico et al. (2019) even suggest that they can

implement low-cost training that improves neural connecꢁvity and global cogniꢁon.

According to Gidon et al. (2020) and, Romero and Vázquez (2021), brain modularity

encompasses mulꢁple interconnected neural networks independently of speciﬁc funcꢁons and

mental operability depends on these interconnected connecꢁons. In other words, the brain can be

considered as a subsystem of interrelated systems (Weht et al., 2022 ), where emoꢁons signiﬁcantly

inﬂuence learning and cogniꢁon, since the brain evaluates the sꢁmuli it receives through the senses

in language learning (Plass and Kalyuga, 2019 ; Mullins and Sabherwal, 2020 ).

Linguisꢁc anthropology is related to ESL, as well as the study of the language, culture, habits,

customs and values of a society (Ramírez, 2020 ; Valdés, 2020 ). The importance of not reducing an

individual to monolinguals is highlighted and the valuaꢁon of linguisꢁc diversity is promoted (Clouet,

2018 ; Budiarta, 2020 ; Goodwin, 2020 ), being in a certain way against the criꢁcal period hypothesis,

which refers to children's neurological advantage in acquiring a second language during childhood.

The age limit of six years presented in this hypothesis is quesꢁoned, highlighꢁng instead the

importance of cogniꢁve maturity in learning (Gardner, 2019 ; Singleton and Leśniewska, 2021 ).

Language anxiety in L2, low self-esteem and lack of moꢁvaꢁon can generate insecurity and

disinterest in the student, which can result in a psychological and mental block that impedes

cogniꢁve and apꢁtude development (Hyseni and Hoxha, 2018 ; Gardner and Lambert, 2019 ). In this

sense, intrinsic moꢁvaꢁon is essenꢁal to address and solve various academic insecuriꢁes

(Murayama, 2019 ).

Correspondence between theoreꢀcal foundaꢀons and research acꢀviꢀes

Below, the acꢁviꢁes carried out on each of the ﬁve days that the intervenꢁon lasted are

described. They are indicated in the theoreꢁcal framework secꢁon because they are accompanied

by the conceptual theoreꢁcal foundaꢁon that supports each of the exercises as part of the

experimental treatment:

2024 | Revista Estudios de la Información, 2(2), 115-133.

hꢀps://doi.org/10.54167/rei.v2i2.1743

116

Baño Lucio, L. E., et al. (2024)

First session

Kinestheꢁc acꢁviꢁes, such as the game of hopscotch, were carried out in an open space

located at the entrance to the room. Memory was also sꢁmulated regarding the order and

grammaꢁcal structure to formulate quesꢁons, answers or short sentences (Yanez-García, et al.,

2021 ; Buzsáki et al., 2022 ). Each child had to jump on boxes that had a logical sequence of colors.

This technique is known in linguisꢁcs as the sentence producꢁon task and seeks to improve students'

syntax (Van den Branden, 2016 ; Loewen & Philp, 2018 ).

Neuropsycholinguisꢁc suggests that kinestheꢁc acꢁviꢁes can beneﬁt learning. Physical

movements increase blood and oxygen ﬂow to the brain, improving aꢀenꢁon, memory, and

cogniꢁve processing (Codd et al., 2020 ). This type of recreaꢁonal acꢁviꢁes is appropriate for children

between 11 and 12 years old, since they are in a stage of development where they seek new

experiences and exciꢁng challenges that contribute to their individual growth and development

(Philpo, 2018 ; DeLuca et al., 2019 ; Gómez, 2021 ). Physical acꢁvity and movement can improve

student learning. Addiꢁonally, visual-motor coordinaꢁon can help improve students' memory,

aꢀenꢁon, and concentraꢁon (Codd et al., 2020 ; Charfe et al., 2020 ).

Second session

Sentence construcꢁon was combined with visual arts (Murayama, 2019 ; Shafazhinskaya et

al., 2019 ; Desmet and Fokkinga, 2020 ) through a set of illustrated cards to introduce students to new

vocabulary related to professions. Linguisꢁc informaꢁon was presented through processing and

applying the informaꢁon eﬀecꢁvely (Damanik, 2019 ).

By using ﬂashcards to teach the basic structure of a sentence and how to make changes to

express diﬀerent ideas, students can associate words with images, thereby improving their memory

and comprehension (Damanik, 2019). It is important to note that the degree of improvement can be

inﬂuenced by various factors, such as the frequency of use of this technique and the level of previous

skill (Chomsky, 2019 ).

In another acꢁvity on the same day, children were asked to draw themselves and write

aﬃrmaꢁve sentences in the simple present tense around the drawing, using phrases such as I am an

architect or adjecꢁves with posiꢁve qualiꢁes such as I am smart. Then, using the sentence chain

technique, we worked on changing negaꢁve self-percepꢁons into posiꢁve ones, based on the

drawing made (Gurney, 2018; Gardner and Lambert, 2019), promoꢁng intrinsic moꢁvaꢁon

(Murayama, 2019 ; Luria et al., 2021 ).

The aim was to moꢁvate children to pursue their dreams related to professions, based on

moꢁvaꢁon theories that highlight the human need to transcend and feel fulﬁlled (Desmet and

Fokkinga, 2020 ), emphasizing Gardner's socio-educaꢁonal model, which highlights the importance

of aﬃnity and taste for the language (Hegedüs, 2020 ; Oakes and Howard, 2022 ).

This reﬂecꢁon and self-analysis allows you to idenꢁfy and understand your own emoꢁons in

relaꢁon to your self-esteem, as well as your professional and academic future (Gurney, 2018 ; Hyseni

and Hoxha, 2018 ). Aꢃer reﬂecꢁng, they were asked to share their thoughts and feelings about their

self-image, allowing them to beꢀer recognize and understand how they perceive themselves in

2024 | Revista Estudios de la Información, 2(2), 115-133.

hꢀps://doi.org/10.54167/rei.v2i2.1743

117

Baño Lucio, L. E., et al. (2024)

terms of achievements and goals (Bacon and Kim, 2018 ; Gardner and Lambert, 2019 ; Hegedüs,

2020 ).

By allowing children to draw themselves and write aﬃrmaꢁve sentences with posiꢁve

adjecꢁves, we seek to build a posiꢁve image of themselves and their abiliꢁes (Gurney, 2018 ).

Likewise, asking them about their drawing and their sentences encourages the posiꢁve development

of their self-awareness and their ability to express themselves verbally in a social context (Charfe,

2020 ; Schunk and DiBenedeꢀo, 2020 ).

Third session

The task was reviewed, leading to the construcꢁon of sentences and the iniꢁaꢁon of

speaking exercises that encouraged students to think criꢁcally and formulate sentences and

quesꢁons in the present tense. This was done using cards with vocabulary related to various

professions, such as I want to become a pilot (Philpo, 2018 ). The purpose of this acꢁvity was to

develop students' ability to produce grammaꢁcally correct and coherent sentences (Van den

Branden, 2016 ; Loewen & Philp, 2018 ).

Fourth session

The coconut-eaꢁng origami game, of Japanese origin, involves folding a square piece of

paper to create a mouth-shaped structure with four ﬂaps or tabs. The mouth opens by liꢃing one of

the ﬂaps located at the corners of the paper. This acꢁvity aimed to detect ﬁne motor skills and hand-

eye coordinaꢁon in students and is useful for developing mathemaꢁcal skills, since it involves the

sequenꢁal and logical construcꢁon of complex mental representaꢁons, similar to those required in

grammar (Acero, 2020 ; Charfe et al., 2020 ).

This game contributes to exploring the folding paꢀerns and geometry of the paper in greater

detail and requires aꢀenꢁon and concentraꢁon to follow the instrucꢁons and complete the task

correctly (Buzsáki et al., 2022 ), involving the coordinaꢁon of diﬀerent paꢀerns, the sequencing of

acꢁons and the manipulaꢁon of physical objects, making it a complete acꢁvity to provide

comprehensive teaching (Gardner, 2019 ).

In the grammaꢁcal ﬁeld, the objecꢁve was to sꢁmulate the retenꢁon of syntax by relaꢁng

the subject to the verb that was in the fold of each corner of the origami (Acero, 2020 ). The students

interacted in pairs and alternately played the game Guess what verb is? guessing the verb

corresponding to the subject indicated by their partner. With this acꢁvity, we sought not only to

improve grammaꢁcal skills, but also to encourage interacꢁon between students and teamwork

(Hasson et al., 2018 ).

Pair work promotes team collaboraꢁon, which is especially useful for those who may feel

uncomfortable expressing themselves in English in a more formal or academic seꢂng (Tridinanꢁ,

2018 ; Chen and Yu-Jung, 2019 ). This in ESL is called language anxiety (Hyseni and Hoxha, 2018 ;

Gardner and Lambert, 2019 ). Therefore, this acꢁvity adopts a playful and cooperaꢁve approach that

sꢁmulates students' memory and enhances their understanding of syntax (Acero, 2020 ).

On one of the ﬂaps of the origami eats coconuts, the children had to write the pronouns in

four categories: First person (I), second person (You, yours), third person (he, she, it) and plural (we,

you, they). When they liꢃed the fold, they had to write the verb that corresponds to the verb to be

2024 | Revista Estudios de la Información, 2(2), 115-133.

hꢀps://doi.org/10.54167/rei.v2i2.1743

118

Baño Lucio, L. E., et al. (2024)

(am, is, are), sꢁmulaꢁng memory of what they had learned and improving syntax by playing in pairs.

The children had to ask their partner to relate the indicated pronoun with the correct verb, both to

ask quesꢁons and to create short sentences (Gómez, 2021 ).

Pedagogically, the combinaꢁon of this type of games favors cogniꢁve development, since

students acquire skills such as ﬁne motor skills, visual-motor coordinaꢁon and the manipulaꢁon of

shapes and objects in space, asking to be a fun and aꢀracꢁve way to involve children in language

learning (Ferreira, et al., 2019 ). If they made a mistake, the student could repeat the quesꢁon,

consult the answer on the origami or pracꢁce with another student, as used in mingle games (Philpo,

2018 ). In addiꢁon, the game encourages concentraꢁon and memory as it is a guessing game.

Fiꢀh session

Grammar exercises were carried out in groups, puꢂng into pracꢁce what was learned during

the week (Philpo, 2018 ). It should be noted that all students acꢁvely parꢁcipated in this acꢁvity,

pracꢁcing the use of personal pronouns in English, according to their level of knowledge and skills.

Dichotomous quesꢁons (YES/NO) were asked using the verb to be in the simple present tense

(Gómez, 2021 ). At the end of the day, and as the end of the experiment, the post-test was

administered.

Methodology

The present research has a quanꢁtaꢁve, applied approach, it is quasi-experimental, since

the independent variable was intenꢁonally manipulated to measure its eﬀect on the dependent

variable without random assignment of the parꢁcipants or control group. The form of the research

is correlaꢁonal, using a deducꢁve method.

Descripꢁon of measuring instruments

Data collecꢁon was carried out using two instruments: (1) Iniꢁal diagnosꢁc instrument,

applied only once; and (2) Instrument to evaluate the pretest and posꢀest, applied twice, at the

beginning and end of the research.

a) Diagnosꢁc instrument. This instrument is an adaptaꢁon of the Aꢂtude/Moꢁvaꢁon Test

Baꢀery (AMTB): Internaꢁonal ATMB Research Project to measure moꢁvaꢁon and aꢂtude

toward English language teaching of a foreign language (Gardner, 2004 ). It was originally

developed by Gardner and educaꢁonal psychologists. at the University of Michigan in the

1970s. The original test consists of 106 Likert-type quesꢁons with response opꢁons ranging

from 1-6. For this research, 25 quesꢁons were chosen and the scale was changed to a

response range of 1-10, since, in the evaluaꢁon system in Mexico, the lowest score is one

and the highest is ten.

The composiꢁon of the diagnosꢁc instrument, together with the methodological matrix of

objecꢁve quesꢁons and hypotheses, was validated by experts and researchers in linguisꢁcs,

taking into account the nature of the experimental treatment applied. A leꢀer of informed

consent was also included for the teacher in charge of the group, as it is an intervenꢁon in

children, approved by the authoriꢁes of the educaꢁonal establishment. In the pilot test of

the instrument, a Cronbach's Alpha Coeﬃcient of .920 was obtained, which suggests that

the items measure the same construct.

2024 | Revista Estudios de la Información, 2(2), 115-133.

hꢀps://doi.org/10.54167/rei.v2i2.1743

119

Baño Lucio, L. E., et al. (2024)

The AMTB is capable of measuring various socioeconomic factors, such as the quality of

language immersion, moꢁvaꢁon, and students' percepꢁon of the usefulness of English as a

foreign language (Geꢁe, 2020 ; Luria et al., 2021 ). It also allows us to idenꢁfy possible factors

that inﬂuence poor academic performance, such as lack of sleep, parental support in

schoolwork, early exposure to English in the family environment, and insecurity when

speaking in class (IRIS Center, 2022 ). Likewise, it includes quesꢁons that generate cogniꢁve

dissonance in students to detect contradictory aꢂtudes or moꢁvaꢁons (Heweꢀ, 2023 ).

b) Pretest y postest. This instrument consists of 20 quesꢁons adapted to be answered by the

children described in the study, the ﬁrst 12 quesꢁons are mulꢁple choice using 4 texts and

the last 8 quesꢁons are mulꢁple choice with 4 images. The instrument was also included in

the validaꢁon by experts, who indicated some adjustments. During the applicaꢁon of the

pilot test it was not necessary to make any changes to it. It is important to clarify that it was

applied without any modiﬁcaꢁon in the pretest and posꢀest in the search for a reliable

evaluaꢁon that would allow the hypothesis test to be carried out.

Characterisꢁcs of the intervenꢁon

The intervenꢁon was carried out in a primary school in the city of Chihuahua, Mexico,

located in a sector of the city considered to be of low socioeconomic level. The school has 334

students and 28 teachers distributed as group leaders, directors, physical educaꢁon and special

educaꢁon. In parꢁcular, this insꢁtuꢁon is disꢁnguished because it was aꢀached to a naꢁonal English

language teaching program since 2022 (which was temporarily interrupted due to the COVID-19

pandemic).

The intervenꢁon was carried out in ﬁve days and focused on improving syntax as part of a

holisꢁc and mulꢁdisciplinary educaꢁon (Gardner, 2019 ; Saavedra, 2021 ), developing linguisꢁc skills

in learning a second language, carrying out acꢁviꢁes that involved 80 % pracꢁce and 20% study

through tasks or exercises in class (Shemesh, 2021 ). The acꢁviꢁes described were applied to a group

of children who were in the ﬁꢃh year of primary school, whose age range was 11 to 12 years old.

Analysis of results

The analysis is divided into two large secꢁons, the ﬁrst of which presents the results of the

iniꢁal instrument; The second presents the analysis of the instrument to evaluate the pretest and

the posꢀest.

Analysis of results of the iniꢁal instrument

Descripꢁvely, it was found that "Learning English is important because I can communicate

with people from other countries." obtained the highest raꢁng, with a value of 9.06. On the other

hand, it was found that the item "They teach me English at home." obtained the lowest score, with

an average of 3.97. Table 1 shows the averages ordered according to the grades obtained.

2024 | Revista Estudios de la Información, 2(2), 115-133.

hꢀps://doi.org/10.54167/rei.v2i2.1743

120

Baño Lucio, L. E., et al. (2024)

Table 1. Averages obtained in the 25 items of the instrument

Item

number

12

Item

Mean

Learning English is important because I can communicate with people from

other countries

9.06

8.71

8.52

8.47

8.23

8.13

8.03

7.97

7.84

7.77

7.45

7.42

7.32

4

5

13

16

7

17

15

3

8

1

18

2

I arrive punctually at school

I am in good health

I would like to speak and write English perfectly and naturally

I love English classes, and my teacher inspires me to learn

I pay aꢀenꢁon in class

I study English because it is important for my educaꢁon and future

I want to learn English; it is something useful and a priority in my life

I usually pay aꢀenꢁon to the explanaꢁon in class

I usually bring all my school supplies

I get enough sleep

I am interested in pracꢁcing English inside and outside of classes

I am moꢁvated during classes

14

I have conﬁdence and feel secure if I have to answer a quesꢁon or

parꢁcipate in class

7.23

11

I would like to have many English-speaking friends and learn about their

culture

I have breakfast and/or usually bring a nutriꢁous snack for recess

7.23

7.2

9

20

6

I am more interested in listening to songs in English than in Spanish

I like it when an adult instructs me to do homework

I would feel conﬁdent if I had to speak on the phone in English

My parents encourage me to learn English

I don't know why other students feel nervous about speaking in class

I ﬁnd it easy to understand everything I hear and see in English

At home, they help me with my homework

6.8

6.45

6.4

6.27

6.03

5.83

5.3

22

19

23

21

10

24

25

My parents know English, and I interact with them

They teach me English at home

4.7

3.97

Correlaꢁon analysis

An analysis was performed using the Pearson coeﬃcient, which varies between -1 for a

perfect negaꢁve correlaꢁon and 1 for a perfect posiꢁve correlaꢁon. Table 2 shows only the

correlaꢁons above .60, ﬁnding that all of them have been marked with two asterisks, which indicates

that they are highly signiﬁcant. Regarding the Pearson correlaꢁon value (r), the ﬁrst two variables

show a very high correlaꢁon, (.800) while the rest present a high correlaꢁon ranging from .613 to

.750.

2024 | Revista Estudios de la Información, 2(2), 115-133.

hꢀps://doi.org/10.54167/rei.v2i2.1743

121

Baño Lucio, L. E., et al. (2024)

Table 2. Variables correlated in English learning moꢀvaꢀon

Correlated Variables

r

Sig

I want to learn English; it is something useful and a priority in my life

I would like to speak and write English perfectly and naturally

0.80

.000**

I ﬁnd it easy to understand everything I hear and see in English

I am interested in listening to songs in English rather than in Spanish

I pay aꢀenꢁon in class

0.75

0.74

0.72

0.70

0.69

0.68

0.67

0.66

0.65

0.64

0.63

.000**

I usually pay aꢀenꢁon to the explanaꢁon in class

I study English because it is important for my educaꢁon and future

I am interested in pracꢁcing English inside and outside of classes

I want to learn English; it is something useful and a priority in my life

I study English because it is important for my educaꢁon and future

I love English classes, and my teacher inspires me to learn

I would like to speak and write English perfectly and naturally

I would feel conﬁdent if I had to speak on the phone in English

My parents encourage me to learn English

I love English classes, and my teacher inspires me to learn

I want to learn English; it is something useful and a priority in my life

I love English classes, and my teacher inspires me to learn

I am interested in pracꢁcing English inside and outside of classes

I would like to speak and write English perfectly and naturally

I study English because it is important for my educaꢁon and future

I love English classes, and my teacher inspires me to learn

I am interested in pracꢁcing English inside and outside of classes

I want to learn English; it is something useful and a priority in my life

My parents encourage me to learn English

I am interested in pracꢁcing English inside and outside of classes

I pay aꢀenꢁon in class

I am interested in listening to songs in English rather than in Spanish

They teach me English at home

My parents know English, and I interact with them

I am moꢁvated during classes

I usually pay aꢀenꢁon to the explanaꢁon in class

Learning English is important because I can communicate with people

from other countries

I am interested in pracꢁcing English inside and outside of classes

0.62

.000**

I would feel conﬁdent if I had to speak on the phone in English

2024 | Revista Estudios de la Información, 2(2), 115-133.

hꢀps://doi.org/10.54167/rei.v2i2.1743

122

Baño Lucio, L. E., et al. (2024)

Correlated Variables

r

Sig

I pay aꢀenꢁon in class

I would like to speak and write English perfectly and naturally

I study English because it is important for my educaꢁon and future

I ﬁnd it easy to understand everything I hear and see in English

I would feel conﬁdent if I had to speak on the phone in English

0.61

.000**

As can be seen, there are quite a few important correlaꢁons, and they have been ordered

from highest (.800) to lowest (.613). Some demonstrate consistency in the students' responses, such

as the items "They teach me English at home" and "My parents know English and I interact with

them", which have a correlaꢁon value (r) of .642.

The item "I want to learn English, it is something useful and a priority in my life." It presents

a high correlaꢁon with other items, such as "I would like to speak and write English perfectly and

naturally" (.800), "I am interested in listening to songs in English more than in Spanish", (.716) "I

study English because it is important for my educaꢁon and future", "I love English classes and my

teacher inspires me to learn" (.675).

Another variable that presents a high correlaꢁon with other variables is "I am interested in

pracꢁcing English inside and aꢃer classes", which has a high linear correlaꢁon of .742 with "I study

English because it is important for my educaꢁon and future", .675 with " I love English classes and

my teacher inspires me to learn", .658 with "I want to learn English, it is something useful and a

priority in my life", and .656 with "My parents encourage me to learn English". The presence of these

correlaꢁons suggests that students with a posiꢁve aꢂtude and intense moꢁvaꢁon are more likely

to achieve transcendental learning in ESL. Furthermore, interest in pracꢁcing the language seems to

be a factor in the teaching and learning process.

Figure 1 allows us to graphically appreciate the correlaꢁons described and observe how

moꢁvaꢁon plays a central role, establishing relaꢁonships with psychological theories and

socioeconomic aspects. Furthermore, the most signiﬁcant correlaꢁons found in the instrument

adapted from the AMTB can be idenꢁﬁed. For example, item 15 is based on self-determinaꢁon

theory. For a beꢀer interpretaꢁon of this ﬁgure, you can consult Table 1, which speciﬁes the number

that corresponds to each item. Similarly, item 13 is contextualized within the framework of Gardner's

socio-educaꢁonal model, which explains the moꢁvaꢁonal intensity of students towards learning in

ESL, as well as their taste and aﬃnity towards the linguisꢁc community and the language. These

relaꢁonships and theoreꢁcal foundaꢁons highlight the importance of moꢁvaꢁng learners in the

process of acquiring an L2.

2024 | Revista Estudios de la Información, 2(2), 115-133.

hꢀps://doi.org/10.54167/rei.v2i2.1743

123

Baño Lucio, L. E., et al. (2024)

Figure 1. Interrelaꢀon between concepts applied in the AMTB items and their correlaꢀon r

Analysis of the instrument for the pretest-posꢂest

Descripꢁvely, both in the pretest and in the posꢀest, we worked with a total of 31 children,

all belonging to the same group. Of them, 13 were women, represenꢁng 41.9%, while 18 were men,

represenꢁng 58.1%. Regarding the scores obtained, an average of 5.04 was recorded in the pretest,

with a standard deviaꢁon of 1.44, and an average of 5.98 in the posꢀest, with a standard deviaꢁon

of 1.50.

A comparison of the means obtained in both tests was carried out according to gender, as

shown in Figure 2. In the case of women, an increase in their scores was observed, going from 5.42,

considered a failing grade, to 6.34, which is considered a passing result. On the other hand, in the

case of men, the average scores ranged from 4.77 to 5.72. Both averages, considered insuﬃcient.

Figure 2. Comparison of mean scores by sex during both tests

2024 | Revista Estudios de la Información, 2(2), 115-133.

hꢀps://doi.org/10.54167/rei.v2i2.1743

124

Baño Lucio, L. E., et al. (2024)

The data was also analyzed in the categories of passed and failed, as shown in Figure 3,

following as a reference the criteria established by the Mexican educational authorities. Based on

what is established in the regulations and policies, it is considered passing from six and failing, less

than the aforementioned qualification, according to the Educational Trends Information System in

Latin America of the document (SITEAL, 2018). In this figure it can be seen that only two of the

participants who passed did not increase their grade, while there are two students who improved

by 3.5 points. Regarding the failure percentages, during the pretest there were 23 failures, which

represents 74.2% of the students. However, in the posttest the number of failed students decreased

to 13, which is equivalent to 41.9%.

Figure 3. Point diagram between the posꢁest and the score diﬀerence

Normality test

In the case of the pretest, the Shapiro-Wilk test of normality for parametric samples yielded

a staꢁsꢁcal value of 0.954 with a signiﬁcance of 0.198, so it can be considered with a conﬁdence

level of 95% that the scores obtained observe a normal distribuꢁon of probabiliꢁes. The distribuꢁon

of the pretest scores can be seen in Figure 4, where a good ﬁt can be seen.

2024 | Revista Estudios de la Información, 2(2), 115-133.

hꢀps://doi.org/10.54167/rei.v2i2.1743

125

Baño Lucio, L. E., et al. (2024)

Figure 4. Pretest goodness adjustment

The same normality analysis was carried out, obtaining in the Shapiro-Wilk test to evaluate

a statistical value of 0.957, with a significance level of 0.237, indicating with a confidence level of

95%, that the posttest scores follow a normal distribution. Similarly, Figure 5 is shown where the

goodness of fit of the data can be seen.

Figure 5. Posꢁest goodness adjustment

2024 | Revista Estudios de la Información, 2(2), 115-133.

hꢀps://doi.org/10.54167/rei.v2i2.1743

126

Baño Lucio, L. E., et al. (2024)

Hypothesis tesꢁng for two related samples

Descripꢁvely, an increase in the scores of both tests was already noted, so a test was carried

out to test the null hypothesis that the scores obtained in both tests are the same, previously

verifying that both distribuꢁons present a normal distribuꢁon. Rejecꢁng this hypothesis would imply

that the averages are diﬀerent and, therefore, it could be concluded that the experimental treatment

applied, which consists of an intervenꢁon with a neuropsycholinguisꢁc approach, with 80% pracꢁce

and 20% theory, was eﬀecꢁve.

The hypothesis test was carried out with a conﬁdence level of 95%, iniꢁally obtaining

descripꢁve staꢁsꢁcs that indicate a score of 5.04 in the pretest and 5.98 in the posꢀest. Among the

31 pairs of data analyzed, a Pearson correlaꢁon coeﬃcient of r = 0.505 is observed, with a

signiﬁcance level of 0.004 (Table 3), which indicates a medium level associaꢁon between the scores.

Although a higher correlaꢁon coeﬃcient would be expected in this type of exercise, the

result obtained is explained by the fact that, although in general the average has increased, there

are several cases of students who individually have not improved their grade and even obtained a

lower score on the posꢀest.

Table 3. Correlaꢀons of paired samples

Correlaꢁons of paired samples

Pair 1 pretest & postest

N

31

Correlaꢁon Signiﬁcance (Two-Tailed)

0.505 0.004

The results of the hypothesis test (Table 4) show that the diﬀerence between both tests is

0.93, with a standard deviaꢁon of 1.47, and yields a probabilisꢁc value associated with the test

staꢁsꢁc of 0.001 (bilateral Sig.), is the criꢁcal value to determine whether to reject the null

hypothesis of equality of means. In this case, the obtained value of 0.001 is less than 0.05. Therefore,

the null hypothesis of equality of means is rejected, thus concluding, with a conﬁdence level of 95%,

that the means between the pretest and the posꢀest are diﬀerent. This result of the hypothesis test

allows us to aﬃrm that the experimental treatment described is eﬀecꢁve in increasing the students'

grades, at least in the group where said treatment was applied.

Table 4. Hypothesis testing for related samples

Standard

error

mean

Paired

diﬀerences

Standard

deviaꢁon

Signiﬁcance

(Two-Tailed)

Mean

-0.93

Lower Upper

pretest - posꢀest

95% conﬁdence

interval of the

diﬀerences

1.47

0.26 -1.47 -0.39

0.001

Limitaꢀons of the research

In the intervenꢁon stage, various situaꢁons were presented that are intended to

complement the analysis, some of which limit the objecꢁvity of the results:

2024 | Revista Estudios de la Información, 2(2), 115-133.

hꢀps://doi.org/10.54167/rei.v2i2.1743

127

Baño Lucio, L. E., et al. (2024)

Environmental and socioeconomic context

Some socioeconomic indicators were detected that may inﬂuence poor performance in ESL

learning. Both in the data collecꢁon in the post-test and in the duraꢁon of the intervenꢁon, some

children did not aꢀend school regularly. Some of them stated that they had been sick. Fear and

anxiety about being evaluated were also detected. Speciﬁcally, one student drew a face with an

expression of fear and insecurity on the exam.

Some children did not have the minimum materials to work with, such as pencil, scissors or

paints. Few students completed the tasks they were assigned to do at home, forgeꢂng to bring to

school the teaching materials provided in class. This may indicate a lack of parental aꢀenꢁon and

supervision, added to the fact that some students did not bring a nutriꢁous snack or buy food.

Atypical cases were observed of children who excelled in all acꢁviꢁes, including memory

retenꢁon. These children showed a clear moꢁvaꢁon when perceiving the usefulness of English as a

foreign language. In contrast, those students who expressed liꢀle interest in the acꢁviꢁes and

diﬃculꢁes understanding the explanaꢁons in the classroom did not experience the same

enthusiasm.

Holisꢁc Neuroeducaꢁon and Mulꢁple Skills in ESL

The majority of children presented cogniꢁve diﬃculꢁes in assigned tasks such as drawing,

especially to express and communicate ideas, emoꢁons and feelings, evidencing deﬁciencies in ﬁne

motor skills, visual-motor coordinaꢁon and visual percepꢁon to capture the shapes, strokes and

details of the object. or image. In addiꢁon, it was possible to observe a low planning and organizaꢁon

capacity that the students had to structure and capture the ﬁgure. In addiꢁon, memory and

concentraꢁon diﬃculꢁes were observed, making it impossible to successfully create playful material

and use it to understand and pracꢁce ESL syntax.

In relaꢁon to the kinestheꢁc game of hopscotch, this acꢁvity is designed for children aged

11 and 12, who are at a stage where they seek exciꢁng experiences and challenges that promote

their physical, cogniꢁve, and social development (Desmet and Fokkinga, 2020). It was perceived that

there was liꢀle interacꢁon and healthy compeꢁꢁon between the parꢁcipants. Most of the students

experienced the game on their own aꢃer explaining to them what the dynamics and grammaꢁcal

sequence consisted of.

Respect the dynamics of the acꢁviꢁes, an acꢁvity that consisted of creaꢁng a paper ﬁgure

was considered complex. A feeling of pride and conﬁdence was observed in the children who

managed to complete it successfully, advancing with enthusiasm to the next phase, which consisted

of using the origami as a toy to construct quesꢁons and short sentences.

Conclusions

Based on the staꢁsꢁcal results of the AMTB quesꢁonnaire, it can be concluded that there

are factors that inﬂuence poor academic performance in the English language in the students

parꢁcipaꢁng in the research. Socioeconomic, educaꢁonal and neuropsycholinguisꢁc aspects have a

signiﬁcant inﬂuence on performance in this language. In quanꢁtaꢁve terms, it was observed that the

average score in the pretest was failing, with a value of 5.04.

2024 | Revista Estudios de la Información, 2(2), 115-133.

hꢀps://doi.org/10.54167/rei.v2i2.1743

128

Baño Lucio, L. E., et al. (2024)

Family and educaꢁonal aspects inﬂuence performance in learning ESL. It was observed that

the least favorable responses in the AMTB instrument were found in the items "At my house they

help me with my homework" and "My parents know English and I have interacꢁons with them",

which obtained a lower average score of 5.30 and 4.70 respecꢁvely. These results demonstrate that

some students have limited access to academic support at home or to English-speaking models,

which may contribute to poor academic performance in this subject. Lack of aꢀenꢁon and support

at home can negaꢁvely inﬂuence student performance.

The items that obtained the highest scores were "I am in good health" and "I arrive at school

on ꢁme", with means of 8.52 and 8.71 respecꢁvely, this suggests that students have the resources

and support necessary to maintain good health. health and fulﬁll their academic responsibiliꢁes.

Regarding moꢁvaꢁon, the highest responses were observed in the items "Learning English is

important because I can communicate with people from other countries" and "I study English

because it is important for my educaꢁon and future", with an average score of 9.06. These results

indicate that students are aware of the importance of language in their educaꢁon and in their future.

Evidence shows that parental aꢀenꢁon improves children's emoꢁonal and social skills. In

the items, "My parents encourage me to learn English" and "My parents know English and I interact

with them" it is reﬂected that the presence of adults who speak the language is an important factor

in the acquisiꢁon of an L2, since this favors posiꢁvely on children's ability and conﬁdence to learn

and not become inhibited when communicaꢁng in ESL. Parents and the school community are

essenꢁal in students' learning of ESL. The interacꢁon and encouragement that children receive both

at home and in the school environment have a signiﬁcant impact on their ability and conﬁdence to

communicate in the language.

A holisꢁc methodology with a focus of 20% on grammar and 80% on pracꢁce can improve

certain English learning skills. The evidence at a descripꢁve level indicates that the mean of the

scores obtained in the post-test (5.98) is higher than that of the pre-test (5.04), which suggests that

the treatment was eﬀecꢁve in improving the linguisꢁc deﬁcit in ESL, in late learners. To establish

whether these diﬀerences are staꢁsꢁcally signiﬁcant, a hypothesis test was carried out to test the

null hypothesis that the scores obtained in both tests are the same, obtaining a probabilisꢁc value

associated with the test staꢁsꢁc of 0.001 (bilateral Sig.). As this value is less than 0.05, the null

hypothesis of equality of means is rejected, thus concluding, with a conﬁdence level of 95%, that

the means between the pretest and the posꢀest are diﬀerent. The above indicates that the

aforemenꢁoned treatment was favorable for improving performance in ESL, although as indicated

before, not all students improved their grade.

It is important to recognize that, although the results of this research are encouraging, an

analysis is necessary in various circumstances, tesꢁng the hypothesis described in other

socioeconomic contexts and other educaꢁonal levels, experimenꢁng with a larger budget, longer

intervenꢁons and with the presence of control groups.

Acknowledgments: The authors of this arꢁcle would like to express their graꢁtude for the funding

of this research to the Naꢁonal Council of Humaniꢁes, Science, and Technology (CONAHCYT) through

the Naꢁonal Postgraduate System (SNP) of Mexico.

2024 | Revista Estudios de la Información, 2(2), 115-133.

hꢀps://doi.org/10.54167/rei.v2i2.1743

129

Baño Lucio, L. E., et al. (2024)

References

Acero, J. J. (2020). Chomsky y la nueva teoría de la referencia. ÉNDOXA: Series Filosóﬁcas, (46), 81-

121. hꢀps://bit.ly/38zIwYn

Ainamani, H. E., Rukundo, G. Z., Nduhukire, T., Ndyareba, E., & Hecker, T. (2021). Child maltreatment,

cogniꢁve funcꢁons and the mediaꢁng role of mental health problems among maltreated

children and adolescents in Uganda. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental

Health, 15(22), 1-11. hꢀps://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-021-00373-7

Bacon, C. K., & Kim, S. Y. (2018). “English is my only weapon”: Neoliberal language ideologies and

youth metadiscourse in South Korea. Linguisꢀcs and Educaꢀon, 48, 10-21.

hꢀps://doi.org/10.1016/j.linged.2018.09.002

Bocchio, M, C., Schwamberger, C., Armella, J., & Grinberg, S. (2020). Inclusión Gerenciada y

Escolarizaciones Low Cost. Una analíꢁca de episodios en escuelas estatales del sur global.

Revista

Laꢀnoamericana

de

Educación

Inclusiva, 14(2),

177-

190. hꢀps://dx.doi.org/10.4067/s0718-73782020000200177

Bonilla Jojoa, L. F., & Díaz Villa, M. (2019). Incidencia de los factores socio-afecꢁvos en el aprendizaje

del inglés. Revista de la Escuela de Ciencias de la Educación, 1(14), 49-64.

hꢀps://bit.ly/3xPxd98

Bubbico, G., Chiacchiareꢀa, P., Parenꢁ, M., di Marco, M., Panara, V., Sepede, G., Ferreꢂ A., Perrucci,

M. G. (2019). Eﬀects of second language learning on the plasꢁc aging brain: Funcꢁonal

connecꢁvity, cogniꢁve decline, and reorganizaꢁon. Fronꢀers in Neuroscience, 13,

423. hꢀps://doi:10.3389/fnins.2019.00423

Budiarta, I. K. (2020). Naꢁve speaker and cultural authenꢁcity in eﬂ class: A linguisꢀc anthropology

perspecꢀve. Jurnal

Sanꢀaji

Pendidikan

(JSP), 10(1),

10-19.

hꢀps://doi.org/10.36733/jsp.v10i1.692

Buzsáki, G., McKenzie, S., & Davachi, L. (2022). Neurophysiology of Remembering. Annual Review of

Psychology, 73, 187-215. hꢀps://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-021721-110002

Charfe, L., Gardner, A., Greenhalgh, E., Marsden, H., Nester, D., & Simpson, L. (2020). Creaꢁng a

learning space: Using experienꢁal learning and creaꢁvity in the teaching and learning of

social

pedagogy. Internaꢀonal

Journal

of

Social

Pedagogy,

9(10),

1-9.

hꢀps://doi.org/10.14324/111.444.ijsp.2020.v9.x.010

Chen, H. L., & Yu-Jung C. (2019). Inﬂuence of a creaꢁve problem-solving approach on college

students’ creaꢁvity and its relaꢁon with team cohesion. Journal of Research in Educaꢀon

Sciences, 64(3), 169-201. hꢀps://doi.10.6209/JORIES.201909_64(3).00077

Chomsky, N. (2019). El lenguaje y los problemas del conocimiento: Conferencias de Managua 1.

Antonio Machado Libros. hꢀps://bit.ly/38n0oFA

Clouet, R. (2018). Distancia entre lenguas/culturas y transferencia lingüísꢁca / cultural: Sus efectos

en el proceso de adquisición del inglés como lengua extranjera. Didácꢀca. Lengua y

Literatura, 30, 57-72. hꢀps://doi.org/10.5209/DIDA.61954

Codd, L. N., Blackmore, D. G., Vukovic, J., & Bartleꢀ, P. F. (2020). Exercise reverses learning deﬁcits

induced by hippocampal injury by promoꢁng neurogenesis. Scienꢀﬁc Reports, 10, 19269.

hꢀps://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-76176-1

2024 | Revista Estudios de la Información, 2(2), 115-133.

hꢀps://doi.org/10.54167/rei.v2i2.1743

130

Baño Lucio, L. E., et al. (2024)

Damanik, B. A. R. (2019). The Eﬀect of metacogniꢁve strategy on the english learners’ vocabulary

mastery. SALTeL Journal (Southeast Asia Language Teaching and Learning), 2(2), 45–55.

hꢀps://doi.org/10.35307/saltel.v2i2.31

DeLuca, V., Rothman, J., Bialystok, E., & Pliatsikas, C. (2019). Redeﬁning bilingualism as a spectrum

of experiences that diﬀerenꢁally aﬀects brain structure and funcꢁon. Proceedings of the

Naꢀonal Academy of Sciences, 116(15), 7565–7574. hꢀps://doi.10.1073/pnas.1811513116

Desmet, P., & Fokkinga, S. (2020). Beyond Maslow’s pyramid: Introducing a typology of thirteen

fundamental needs for human-centered design. Mulꢀmodal Technologies and

Interacꢀon, 4(3), 1-22. hꢀps://doi.org/10.3390/mꢁ4030038

Ferreira, M., Olcina-Sempere, G., & Reis-Jorge, J. (2019). El profesorado como mediador cogniꢁvo y

promotor de un aprendizaje signiﬁcaꢁvo. Revista Educación, 43(2), 599-611.

hꢀps://dx.doi.org/10.15517/revedu.v43i2.37269

Gardner, A. A., & Lambert, C. A. (2019). Examining the interplay of self-esteem, trait-emoꢁonal

intelligence, and age with depression across adolescence. Journal of Adolescence, 71, 162-

166. hꢀps://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2019.01.008

Gardner, H. (2019). “Neuromyths”: A Criꢁcal Consideraꢁon. Mind, Brain and Educaꢀon, 14(1), 2-4.

hꢀps://doi.org/10.1111/mbe.12229

Gardner, R. C. (2004). Aꢂtude/moꢁvaꢁon test baꢀery: Internaꢁonal AMTB research

project. Canada: The University of Western Ontario. hꢀps://bit.ly/3RrmKXz

Geꢁe, A. S. (2020) Factors aﬀecꢁng the aꢂtudes of students towards learning English as a foreign

language. Cogent Educaꢀon, 7(1), 738184. hꢀps://doi.10.1080/2331186X.2020.1738184

Gidon, A., Zolnik, T. A., Fidzinski, P., Bolduan, F., Papoutsi, A., Poirazi, P., Holtkamp M., Vida, I., Larkum,

M. E. (2020). Dendriꢁc acꢁon potenꢁals and computaꢁon in human layer 2/3 corꢁcal

neurons. Science, 367 (6473), 83–87. hꢀps://doi.10.1126/science.aax6239

Gómez Calvillo, N. (2021). Valoración de formas no estándares desde la gramáꢁca cogniꢁva. RASAL

Lingüísꢀca, (1), 97–119. hꢀps://bit.ly/3P7OBfw

Goodwin, A. L. (2020) Globalizaꢁon, Global Mindsets and Teacher Educaꢁon. Acꢀon in Teacher

Educaꢀon, 42(1), 6-18. hꢀps://doi.org/10.1080/01626620.2019.1700848

Gurney, P. W. (2018). Self-esteem in children with special educaꢀonal needs. Routledge.

hꢀps://doi.org/10.4324/9780429503627

Hasson, U., Egidi, G., Marelli, M., & Willems, R. M. (2018). Grounding the neurobiology of language

in ﬁrst principles: The necessity of non-language-centric explanaꢁons for language

comprehension. Cogniꢀon, 180, 135-157. hꢀps://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogniꢁon.2018.06.018

Hegedűs, G. (2020). Contemporary language moꢁvaꢁon theory–60 years since Gardner and Lambert

(1959). Hungarian

hꢀps://doi.10.1556/063.2020.00018

Heweꢀ, R. (2023). Dissonance, reﬂecꢁon and reframing: Unpacking the black box of moꢁvaꢁon

internalizaꢁon. Journal of Management Studies, 60(2), 285-

312.hꢀps://doi.org/10.1111/joms.12878

Educaꢀonal

Research

Journal, 10(2),

176-179.

Hyseni D. Z., & Hoxha, L. (2018). Self-esteem, study skills, self-concept, social support, psychological

distress, and coping mechanism eﬀects on test anxiety and academic performance. Health

Psychology Open, 5(2), 1-9. hꢀps://doi.org/10.1177/2055102918799963

IRIS Center (Ed.) (2022). ¿Qué deben entender los maestros para poder responder a la diversidad

estudianꢀl en sus salones de clase? ¿Por qué sí o por qué no? hꢀps://bit.ly/3TVtPBr

2024 | Revista Estudios de la Información, 2(2), 115-133.

hꢀps://doi.org/10.54167/rei.v2i2.1743

131

Baño Lucio, L. E., et al. (2024)

Legault, J., Grant, A., Fang, S.-Y., & Li, P. (2019). A longitudinal invesꢁgaꢁon of structural brain changes

during

second

language

learning.

Brain

and

Language,

197,

104661. hꢀps://doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2019.104661

Li, X., Salami, A., Avelar-Pereira, B., Bäckman, L., & Persson, J. (2022). White-maꢀer integrity and

working memory: Links to aging and dopamine-related genes. Eneuro, 9(2), 1-15.

hꢀps://doi.org/10.1523/ENEURO.0413-21.2022

Loewen, S., & Philp, J. (2018). Instructed second language acquisiꢁon. In A. Mackey and S. M. Gass

(Editors), Research Methods in Second Language Acquisiꢀon: A Pracꢀcal Guide (pp. 53-73).

Wiley-Blackwell. hꢀps://doi.10.1057/978-1-137-59900-1_29

Luria, E., Shalom, M., & Levy, D. A. (2021). Cogniꢁve Neuroscience Perspecꢁves on Moꢁvaꢁon and

Learning: Revisiꢁng self-determinaꢁon theory. Mind, Brain, and Educaꢀon, 15(1), 5-17.

hꢀps://doi.org/10.1111/mbe.12275

Mercadante,

A.

A.,

&

Tadi,

P.

(2021).

Neuroanatomy,

Gray

Maꢁer.

hꢀps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK553239/

Moreta Colcha, H. E., Vallejo Vásquez, C. R., Chiluiza Villacis, C. E., & Revelo Hidalgo, E. Y. (2019).

Desnutrición en niños menores de 5 años: Complicaciones y manejo a nivel mundial y en

Ecuador. RECIMUNDO: Revista Cienꢂﬁca de la Invesꢀgación y el Conocimiento, 3(1), 345-

361. hꢀps://doi.10.26820/recimundo/3.(1).enero.2019.345-361

Mullins, J. K., & Sabherwal, R. (2020). Gamiﬁcaꢁon: A cogniꢁve-emoꢁonal view. Journal of Business

Research, 106, 304-314. hꢀps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.09.023

Murayama, K. (2019). Neuroscienꢁﬁc and psychological approaches to incenꢁves: Commonality and

mulꢁfaceted views. In K. A. Renninger & S. E. Hidi (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of

moꢀvaꢀon

and

learning

(pp.141–162).

Cambridge

University

Press. hꢀps://doi.org/10.1017/9781316823279.008

Oakes, L., & Howard, M. (2022). Learning French as a foreign language in a globalised world: An

empirical criꢁque of the L2 Moꢁvaꢁonal Self System. Internaꢀonal Journal of Bilingual

Educaꢀon

and

Bilingualism, 25(1),

166-182.

hꢀps://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2019.1642847

Philpo. J. (2018). Construcꢁvism: Its implicaꢁons for language teaching and second-language

acquisiꢁon. Papers in Educaꢀon and Development, (33-34), 1-10. hꢀps://bit.ly/3KumFzm

Plass, J. L., & Kalyuga, S. (2019). Four ways of considering emoꢁon in cogniꢁve load

theory. Educaꢀonal Psychology Review, 31(2), 339-359. hꢀps://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-

019-09473-5

Ramírez Pérez, R. (2020). La pragmáꢁca en las clases de ELE: Qué enseñar, cómo y dónde. In M.

Bargalló-Escrivà (Eds.), Recerca en Humanitats 2019 (pp. 63-78). Publicaciones UVR.

hꢀps://doi.10.17345/9788484248637

Romero, E.,

&

Vázquez, G. (2021). Actualización en Neuropsicología Clínica. Nobuko.

hꢀps://bit.ly/3M3Hrqj

Saavedra Caballero, O. E. (2021). Método sugestopedia para mejorar speaking skill del inglés en las

estudiantes de la insꢀtución educaꢀva Ica-2021 [Tesis para obtener el Grado Académico de:

Maestro en didácꢁca en idiomas extranjeros, Universidad César Vallejo].

hꢀps://bit.ly/37oATDI

Schunk, D. H., & DiBenedeꢀo, M. K. (2020). Moꢁvaꢁon and social cogniꢁve theory. Contemporary

Educaꢀonal Psychology, 60, 101832. hꢀps://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2019.101832

2024 | Revista Estudios de la Información, 2(2), 115-133.

hꢀps://doi.org/10.54167/rei.v2i2.1743

132

Baño Lucio, L. E., et al. (2024)

Shafazhinskaya, N. E., Shcherbinina, V. M., Ivanova, E. Y., Belyakova, T. E., & Pereverzeva, M. V. (2019).

Learning about world art culture as a method of forming a universal cross-cultural

communicaꢁon competence. Humaniꢀes & Social Sciences Reviews, 7(6), 1225-1229.

hꢀps://doi.org/10.18510/hss r .2019.76173

Shemesh, H. (Ed) (2021) The 80/20 Rule in English. hꢀps://bit.ly/3SXxqhp

Singleton, D., & Leśniewska, J. (2021). The criꢁcal period hypothesis for L2 acquisiꢁon: An

unfalsiﬁable embarrassment? Languages, 6(3), 1-15. hꢀps://ꢁnyurl.com/46ps57db

Telep, O. A., Balashenko, I. V., Fedaka, P. P., Ukhach, L. I., & Sivak, Y. M. (2021). Development and

transformaꢁon of the communicaꢁve element of socio-cultural acꢁviꢁes. Linguisꢀcs and

Culture Review, 5(S2), 708-721. hꢀps://doi.org/10.21744/lingcure.v5nS2.1414

Thau, L., Reddy, V., Singh, P. Anatomy, Central Nervous System. In StatPearls; StatPearls Publishing:

Treasure Island. hꢀps://bit.ly/3k60K6b

Tridinanꢁ, G. (2018). The correlaꢁon between speaking anxiety, self-conﬁdence, and speaking

achievement of undergraduate EFL students of private University in

Palembang. Internaꢀonal Journal of Educaꢀon and Literacy Studies, 6(4), 35-39.

hꢀp://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijels.v.6n.4p.35

Van den Branden, K. (2016). Task-based language teaching. In The Routledge handbook of English

language teaching (pp. 238-251). Routledge. hꢀps://bit.ly/41Q4WMb

Valdés Bernal, S. (2020) Antropología Lingüísꢀca. Universidad de Estudios Internacionales de Hebei.

hꢀps://bit.ly/3rMAbqK

Weht, R., Levy, P., Quinteros, C., Filevich, O., Sanca, G., Golmar, F., Acha, C., Granja, L., Angelomé, P.,

& Marꢁnez, E. (2022). Proyectos de invesꢀgación plurianuales PIP 2022-2024: Sistemas

neuromórﬁcos altamente interconectados. Comisión Nacional de Energía Atómica.

hꢀps://bit.ly/3xa8PPc

Yanez-García, B. M., Zambrano-Gallardo, G. E., & Santos-Zambrano, Y. M. (2021). Neurociencias

cogniꢁvas, neurociencias de la educación y el aprendizaje del inglés. Conﬂuencias

necesarias. Maestro y Sociedad, 18(3), 1001-1015. hꢀps://bit.ly/3uXjGZX

2024 | Revista Estudios de la Información, 2(2), 115-133.

hꢀps://doi.org/10.54167/rei.v2i2.1743

133